I wonder how the impact of human activities on ES can be understood with the cascade model approach. For regulating and maintenance ES, it seems clear to me that an anthropogenic activity (e.g. leading to toxic emissions) can have an impact on the structure and/or processes of an ecosystem, leading to a variation in ecosystem functions and ES flows. Nevertheless, I wonder how to consider the extraction of a natural resource (biotic and abiotic). Can we consider that the extraction of nickel (for example) will influence the structure of the ecosystem, and lead to a decrease in the supply of SE from nickel?

Many thanks for your help and have a lovely day!