dear Alain, maybe heat is not the issue but availability of samples? just a guess but I experienced, that i.e. the greek authorities are very peculiar and restrictive about exporting samples from archaeological findings. this is for some good reasons since in colonial and post colonial times many cutural heritage items left the countires...

however, here are all references from my personal reference database dealing with egypt / ancient DNA and beyond:

[1] Paabo S. Molecular cloning of Ancient Egyptian mummy DNA. Nature. 1985;314:644-5.

[2] Paabo S. Molecular genetic investigations of ancient human remains. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol. 1986;51 Pt 1:441-6.

[3] Paabo S. Molecular genetic methods in archaeology. A prospect. Anthropol Anz. 1987;45:9-17.

[4] Cherfas J. Ancient DNA: still busy after death. Science. 1991;253:1354-6.

[5] Lawlor DA, Dickel CD, Hauswirth WW, Parham P. Ancient HLA genes from 7,500-year-old archaeological remains. Nature. 1991;349:785-8.

[6] Tobolewski J, Kaliszewski M, Stanton D. Ancient DNA from mummies at Seila, Egypt. Ancient DNA Newsletter. 1992;1:15.

[7] Van der Kuyl A.C, Dekker J, Clutton-Brock J, Perizonius W.R.K, Goudsmit J. Sequence analysis of mitochondrial DNA fragments from mummified Egyptian monkey tissue. Ancient DNA Newsletter. 1992;1:17-8.

[8] Cook M. Detection of DNA in ancient skeletal remains using DNA flow cytometry. Biotech Histochem. 1993;68:260-4.

[9] Hanni C, Laudet V, Coll J, Stehelin D. An unusual mitochondrial DNA sequence variant from an Egyptian mummy. Genomics. 1994;22:487-9.

[10] Perrin C, Noly V, Mourer R, Schmitt D. [Preservation of cutaneous structures of egyptian mummies. An ultrastructural study]. Ann Dermatol Venereol. 1994;121:470-5.

[11] Van der Kuyl A.C, Dekker J, Attia M.A.M, Iskander N, Perizonius W.R.K, Goudsmit J. DNA from ancient Egyptian monkey bones. Ancient DNA Newsletter. 1994;2:19-21.

[12] Etspüler H, Kaup Y, Eiring P, Werner H, Bailyes EM, Luzio JP, et al. Functional and Immunological Activity of an Egyptian Mummified Bone Enzyme from The Old Kingdom. Ancient Biomolecules. 1996;1:17-23.

[13] O'Donoghue K, Clapham A, Evershed RP, Brown TA. Remarkable preservation of biomolecules in ancient radish seeds. Proc Biol Sci. 1996;263:541-7.

[14] Salem AH, Badr FM, Gaballah MF, Paabo S. The genetics of traditional living: Y-chromosomal and mitochondrial lineages in the Sinai Peninsula. Am J Hum Genet. 1996;59:741-3.

[15] Nerlich AG, Haas CJ, Zink A, Szeimies U, Hagedorn HG. Molecular evidence for tuberculosis in an ancient Egyptian mummy. Lancet. 1997;350:1404.

[16] Crubezy E, Ludes B, Poveda JD, Clayton J, Crouau-Roy B, Montagnon D. Identification of Mycobacterium DNA in an Egyptian Pott's disease of 5,400 years old. Cr Acad Sci Iii-Vie. 1998;321:941-51.

[17] Klintschar M, al-Hammadi N, Lux T, Reichenpfader B. Genetic variation at the short tandem repeat loci HumvWA, HumFXIIIB, and HumFES/FPS in the Egyptian and Yemenian populations. J Forensic Sci. 1998;43:850-3.

[18] Klintschar M, al-Hammadi N, Reichenpfader B. Population genetic studies on the tetrameric short tandem repeat loci D3S1358, VWA, FGA, D8S1179, D21S11, D18S51, D5S818, D13S317 and D7S820 in Egypt. Forensic Sci Int. 1999;104:23-31.

[19] Krings M, Salem AE, Bauer K, Geisert H, Malek AK, Chaix L, et al. mtDNA analysis of Nile River Valley populations: A genetic corridor or a barrier to migration? Am J Hum Genet. 1999;64:1166-76.

[20] Marin A, Cerutti N, Massa ER. Use of the amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) in the study of HbS in predynastic Egyptian remains. Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper. 1999;75:27-30.

[21] Clisson I, Crubezy E, Midant-Reynes B, Ludes B. Megaplex analysis of brain remains from the necropolis of Adaima (Egypt, 3700-2800 BC). Progress in Forensic Genetics 8. 2000:555-7

635.

[22] Zink A, Reischl U, Wolf H, Nerlich AG. Molecular evidence of bacteremia by gastrointestinal pathogenic bacteria in an infant mummy from ancient Egypt. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2000;124:1614-8.

[23] Graver AM, Molto Je, Parr RL, Walters S, Praymak RC. Mitochondrial DNA Research in the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt: A Preliminary Report. Ancient Biomolecules. 2001;3:239-53.

[24] Zink A, Haas CJ, Reischl U, Szeimies U, Nerlich AG. Molecular analysis of skeletal tuberculosis in an ancient Egyptian population. J Med Microbiol. 2001;50:355-66.

[25] Zink A, Reischl U, Wolf H, Nerlich AG, Miller R. Corynebacterium in ancient Egypt. Med Hist. 2001;45:267-72.

[26] Marota I, Basile C, Ubaldi M, Rollo F. DNA decay rate in papyri and human remains from Egyptian archaeological sites. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2002;117:310-8.

[27] Marota I, Rollo F. Molecular paleontology. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2002;59:97-111.

[28] Mazar A, Vernon K, Matheson C, Spiegelman M. Ancient Sex Change and the Prince of Egypt. In: Brown T, editor. 6th International Conference of Ancient DNA and Associated Biomolecules. Tel Aviv, Israel: Ancient Biomolecules; 2002. p. 147.

[29] Rabino ME, Ceruti N, Marin A. Application of ARMS in Screening for Sicklemia in Ancient Egyptian Mummies. In: Brown T, editor. 6th International Conference of Ancient DNA and Associated Biomolecules. Tel Aviv, Israel: Ancient Biomolecules; 2002. p. 151-2.

[30] Spiegelman M, Matheson C, Sowada K. An Interlooper revealed: DNA Analysis and the Identification of an Egyptian Mummy. In: Brown T, editor. 6th International Conference of Ancient DNA and Associated Biomolecules. Tel Aviv, Israel: Ancient Biomolecules; 2002. p. 156-7.

[31] Zink A, Sola C, Reischl U, Nerlich AG. Molecular characterization of Mycobacterium complex Findings an Ancient Egyptian Mummies. In: Brown T, editor. 6th International Conference of Ancient DNA and Associated Biomolecules. Tel Aviv, Israel: Ancient Biomolecules; 2002. p. 166.

[32] Cavalieri D, McGovern PE, Hartl DL, Mortimer R, Polsinelli M. Evidence for S. cerevisiae fermentation in ancient wine. J Mol Evol. 2003;57 Suppl 1:S226-32.

[33] Zink A, Nerlich AG. Molecular analyses of the "Pharaos:" Feasibility of molecular studies in ancient Egyptian material. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2003;121:109-11.

[34] Zink AR, Grabner W, Reischl U, Wolf H, Nerlich AG. Molecular study on human tuberculosis in three geographically distinct and time delineated populations from ancient Egypt. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130:239-49.

[35] Zink AR, Sola C, Reischl U, Grabner W, Rastogi N, Wolf H, et al. Characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNAs from Egyptian mummies by spoligotyping. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:359-67.

[36] Paabo S, Poinar H, Serre D, Jaenicke-Despres V, Hebler J, Rohland N, et al. Genetic analyses from ancient DNA. Annu Rev Genet. 2004;38:645-79.

[37] Gilbert MT, Barnes I, Collins MJ, Smith C, Eklund J, Goudsmit J, et al. Long-term survival of ancient DNA in Egypt: response to Zink and Nerlich (2003). Am J Phys Anthropol. 2005;128:110-4; discussion 5-8.

[38] Mitchell D, Willerslev E, Hansen A. Damage and repair of ancient DNA. Mutat Res. 2005;571:265-76.

[39] Zink AR, Grabner W, Nerlich AG. Molecular identification of human tuberculosis in recent and historic bone tissue samples: The role of molecular techniques for the study of historic tuberculosis. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2005;126:32-47.

[40] Zink AR, Nerlich AG. Long-term survival of ancient DNA in Egypt: Reply to Gilbert et al. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2005;128:115-8.

[41] Perez-Miranda AM, Alfonso-Sanchez MA, Pena JA, Herrera RJ. Qatari DNA variation at a crossroad of human migrations. Hum Hered. 2006;61:67-79.

[42] Zink AR, Spigelman M, Schraut B, Greenblatt CL, Nerlich AG, Donoghue HD. Leishmaniasis in ancient Egypt and Upper nubia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12:1616-7.

[43] Li Y, Carroll DS, Gardner SN, Walsh MC, Vitalis EA, Damon IK. On the origin of smallpox: correlating variola phylogenics with historical smallpox records. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104:15787-92.

[44] Omran GA, Rutty GN, Jobling MA. Genetic variation of 15 autosomal STR loci in Upper (Southern) Egyptians. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2009;3:e39-44.

[45] Saunier JL, Irwin JA, Strouss KM, Ragab H, Sturk KA, Parsons TJ. Mitochondrial control region sequences from an Egyptian population sample. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2009;3:e97-103.

[46] Shotivaranon J, Chirachariyavej T, Leetrakool N, Rerkamnuaychoke B. DNA database of populations from different parts in the Kingdom of Thailand. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2009;4:e37-8.

[47] Hawass Z, Gad YZ, Ismail S, Khairat R, Fathalla D, Hasan N, et al. Ancestry and pathology in King Tutankhamun's family. JAMA. 2010;303:638-47.

[48] Woide D, Zink A, Thalhammer S. Technical note: PCR analysis of minimum target amount of ancient DNA. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2010;142:321-7.

[49] Boattini A, Castri L, Sarno S, Useli A, Cioffi M, Sazzini M, et al. mtDNA variation in East Africa unravels the history of Afro-Asiatic groups. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2013;150:375-85.

[50] Brandt G. Did Tutankhamun suffer from hypophosphatasia?--A hypothetical approach. Anthropol Anz. 2013;70:249-60.

[51] Campana MG, Bower MA, Crabtree PJ. Ancient DNA for the Archaeologist: The Future of African Research. Afr Archaeol Rev. 2013;30:21-37.

[52] Khairat R, Ball M, Chang CC, Bianucci R, Nerlich AG, Trautmann M, et al. First insights into the metagenome of Egyptian mummies using next-generation sequencing. J Appl Genet. 2013;54:309-25.

[53] Lalremruata A, Ball M, Bianucci R, Welte B, Nerlich AG, Kun JF, et al. Molecular identification of falciparum malaria and human tuberculosis co-infections in mummies from the Fayum depression (Lower Egypt). PLoS One. 2013;8:e60307.

[54] Curic G, Hercog R, Vrselja Z, Wagner J. Identification of person and quantification of human DNA recovered from mosquitoes (Culicidae). Forensic Sci Int-Gen. 2014;8:109-12.

[55] Elakkary S, Hoffmeister-Ullerich S, Schulze C, Seif E, Sheta A, Hering S, et al. Genetic polymorphisms of twelve X-STRs of the investigator Argus X-12 kit and additional six X-STR centromere region loci in an Egyptian population sample. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2014;11:26-30.

[56] Terali K, Zorlu T, Bulbul O, Gurkan C. Population genetics of 17 Y-STR markers in Turkish Cypriots from Cyprus. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2014;10:e1-3.

[57] Allaby RG, Gutaker R, Clarke AC, Pearson N, Ware R, Palmer SA, et al. Using archaeogenomic and computational approaches to unravel the history of local adaptation in crops. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2015;370.

I did not read the paper yet but I know that many German scientists have confirmed those information many times. However, I am almost sure that the DNA of the mummies is almost intact till now

If heating is the problem, then you should still find DNA. We are working on processed animal proteins which undergo a sterilization process at a minimum of 133°C (pressure of at least 3 bars) during a minimum of 20 minutes and you can still find DNA in such a product. Of course you need to adapt the size of the PCR target (preferably not more than 125 bp) as the DNA  is fragmented. Mummies were for sure not submitted to such a thermal process. However if I am not wrong, the conservation process of mummies  involved use of sodium hydroxide which has a huge detrimental effect on integrity of DNA if the pH is too high. Like for procesed animal proteins, the chance is great that in the bones the DNA was better conserved.

dear Alain, I´m very, very confident in the results on Tut and his family - for several reasons: The authors could show a consistent kinship relation between the individuals under investigation - this mere fact represents a strong argument for the authenticity of the data – any other explanations such as contamination is far less probable to explain the authors findings. As far as I understand the DNA from Tut and his family was everything else but intact - however analyses like that require only minute amounts of DNA for successful kinship analysis – and this works well even with highly degraded DNA i.e. fragments not longer than a few 100 bp. Aside of the presence of analyzable ancient DNA, so called co-purifying inhibitor represent a major problem in doing such works and was also a challenge in Tut and his family! The lack of widespread DNA data on ancient Egyptians may be due to the mummification process (and DNA destruction) – however, additionally digenetic effects, storage conditions and constancy microclimate are also crucial and may be responsible for the small number of papers on ancient Egyptian DNA. I did some analyses of physically well-preserved bone samples from Turkey and Greece – none of those yielded DNA. mummification and the chemistry involved is critical but also the storage conditions between inhumation and excavation as well as between excavation and analysis. @ Gilbert: agree: heat alone is not the problem: as I know from forensic caseworks (fire victims), several 100°C up to 1000 even for several hours degrades but does not destroy the DNA...

Cher Alain, je suis cette discussion avec grand intérêt bien que je ne connaisse rien en génétique. Il y a toutefois un point important que cette étude, et d'autres similaires effectuées sur des anciens Egyptiens, pourrait résoudre, serait de préciser à quelle population ils sont rattachés - et en particulier sont-ils des Berbères ?

Bon courage et bien amicalement, Jean Maley

The current generation of sequencers actually works better with fragmented DNA. Indeed, in order for modern DNA samples to be sequenced, they must first be broken down in to fragments of a few hundred base pairs in order to work in Next-Gen sequencers.

I also agree with Gilbert Berben that heat is not the issue, especially considering the preservation of DNA even following exposure to such high temperatures. It is extremely unlikely that the mummies were ever exposed to this much heat, and the microenvironment of the tombs in which the mummies resided for much of their afterlives is significantly cooler and more stable than ambient temperatures outside of the tomb.

Additionally, the mummies were rapidly desiccated in the mummification process, serving to further protect against DNA degradation. It is also worth noting, here, that  sodium hydroxide (lye/caustic soda) was not used in the mummification process. Rather the sodium salts sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate (along with a little sodium chloride and sodium sulphate), gathered from the edges of the Wadi Natrun, were packed in and around the body to absorb moisture.

Considering this in light of the consistency of the findings, their replication in multiple labs, and their correlation to genetic relationships supported by other lines of evidence, the case for Egyptian aDNA studies is strong.

Dear colleagues, thank you for your answers. If heat is not an issue, why then are there no papers on ancient Egyptians' genetics? Nobody interested?

dear Alain, maybe heat is not the issue but availability of samples? just a guess but I experienced, that i.e. the greek authorities are very peculiar and restrictive about exporting samples from archaeological findings. this is for some good reasons since in colonial and post colonial times many cutural heritage items left the countires...

however, here are all references from my personal reference database dealing with egypt / ancient DNA and beyond:

[1] Paabo S. Molecular cloning of Ancient Egyptian mummy DNA. Nature. 1985;314:644-5.

[2] Paabo S. Molecular genetic investigations of ancient human remains. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol. 1986;51 Pt 1:441-6.

[3] Paabo S. Molecular genetic methods in archaeology. A prospect. Anthropol Anz. 1987;45:9-17.

[4] Cherfas J. Ancient DNA: still busy after death. Science. 1991;253:1354-6.

[5] Lawlor DA, Dickel CD, Hauswirth WW, Parham P. Ancient HLA genes from 7,500-year-old archaeological remains. Nature. 1991;349:785-8.

[6] Tobolewski J, Kaliszewski M, Stanton D. Ancient DNA from mummies at Seila, Egypt. Ancient DNA Newsletter. 1992;1:15.

[7] Van der Kuyl A.C, Dekker J, Clutton-Brock J, Perizonius W.R.K, Goudsmit J. Sequence analysis of mitochondrial DNA fragments from mummified Egyptian monkey tissue. Ancient DNA Newsletter. 1992;1:17-8.

[8] Cook M. Detection of DNA in ancient skeletal remains using DNA flow cytometry. Biotech Histochem. 1993;68:260-4.

[9] Hanni C, Laudet V, Coll J, Stehelin D. An unusual mitochondrial DNA sequence variant from an Egyptian mummy. Genomics. 1994;22:487-9.

[10] Perrin C, Noly V, Mourer R, Schmitt D. [Preservation of cutaneous structures of egyptian mummies. An ultrastructural study]. Ann Dermatol Venereol. 1994;121:470-5.

[11] Van der Kuyl A.C, Dekker J, Attia M.A.M, Iskander N, Perizonius W.R.K, Goudsmit J. DNA from ancient Egyptian monkey bones. Ancient DNA Newsletter. 1994;2:19-21.

[12] Etspüler H, Kaup Y, Eiring P, Werner H, Bailyes EM, Luzio JP, et al. Functional and Immunological Activity of an Egyptian Mummified Bone Enzyme from The Old Kingdom. Ancient Biomolecules. 1996;1:17-23.

[13] O'Donoghue K, Clapham A, Evershed RP, Brown TA. Remarkable preservation of biomolecules in ancient radish seeds. Proc Biol Sci. 1996;263:541-7.

[14] Salem AH, Badr FM, Gaballah MF, Paabo S. The genetics of traditional living: Y-chromosomal and mitochondrial lineages in the Sinai Peninsula. Am J Hum Genet. 1996;59:741-3.

[15] Nerlich AG, Haas CJ, Zink A, Szeimies U, Hagedorn HG. Molecular evidence for tuberculosis in an ancient Egyptian mummy. Lancet. 1997;350:1404.

[16] Crubezy E, Ludes B, Poveda JD, Clayton J, Crouau-Roy B, Montagnon D. Identification of Mycobacterium DNA in an Egyptian Pott's disease of 5,400 years old. Cr Acad Sci Iii-Vie. 1998;321:941-51.

[17] Klintschar M, al-Hammadi N, Lux T, Reichenpfader B. Genetic variation at the short tandem repeat loci HumvWA, HumFXIIIB, and HumFES/FPS in the Egyptian and Yemenian populations. J Forensic Sci. 1998;43:850-3.

[18] Klintschar M, al-Hammadi N, Reichenpfader B. Population genetic studies on the tetrameric short tandem repeat loci D3S1358, VWA, FGA, D8S1179, D21S11, D18S51, D5S818, D13S317 and D7S820 in Egypt. Forensic Sci Int. 1999;104:23-31.

[19] Krings M, Salem AE, Bauer K, Geisert H, Malek AK, Chaix L, et al. mtDNA analysis of Nile River Valley populations: A genetic corridor or a barrier to migration? Am J Hum Genet. 1999;64:1166-76.

[20] Marin A, Cerutti N, Massa ER. Use of the amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) in the study of HbS in predynastic Egyptian remains. Boll Soc Ital Biol Sper. 1999;75:27-30.

[21] Clisson I, Crubezy E, Midant-Reynes B, Ludes B. Megaplex analysis of brain remains from the necropolis of Adaima (Egypt, 3700-2800 BC). Progress in Forensic Genetics 8. 2000:555-7

635.

[22] Zink A, Reischl U, Wolf H, Nerlich AG. Molecular evidence of bacteremia by gastrointestinal pathogenic bacteria in an infant mummy from ancient Egypt. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2000;124:1614-8.

[23] Graver AM, Molto Je, Parr RL, Walters S, Praymak RC. Mitochondrial DNA Research in the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt: A Preliminary Report. Ancient Biomolecules. 2001;3:239-53.

[24] Zink A, Haas CJ, Reischl U, Szeimies U, Nerlich AG. Molecular analysis of skeletal tuberculosis in an ancient Egyptian population. J Med Microbiol. 2001;50:355-66.

[25] Zink A, Reischl U, Wolf H, Nerlich AG, Miller R. Corynebacterium in ancient Egypt. Med Hist. 2001;45:267-72.

[26] Marota I, Basile C, Ubaldi M, Rollo F. DNA decay rate in papyri and human remains from Egyptian archaeological sites. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2002;117:310-8.

[27] Marota I, Rollo F. Molecular paleontology. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2002;59:97-111.

[28] Mazar A, Vernon K, Matheson C, Spiegelman M. Ancient Sex Change and the Prince of Egypt. In: Brown T, editor. 6th International Conference of Ancient DNA and Associated Biomolecules. Tel Aviv, Israel: Ancient Biomolecules; 2002. p. 147.

[29] Rabino ME, Ceruti N, Marin A. Application of ARMS in Screening for Sicklemia in Ancient Egyptian Mummies. In: Brown T, editor. 6th International Conference of Ancient DNA and Associated Biomolecules. Tel Aviv, Israel: Ancient Biomolecules; 2002. p. 151-2.

[30] Spiegelman M, Matheson C, Sowada K. An Interlooper revealed: DNA Analysis and the Identification of an Egyptian Mummy. In: Brown T, editor. 6th International Conference of Ancient DNA and Associated Biomolecules. Tel Aviv, Israel: Ancient Biomolecules; 2002. p. 156-7.

[31] Zink A, Sola C, Reischl U, Nerlich AG. Molecular characterization of Mycobacterium complex Findings an Ancient Egyptian Mummies. In: Brown T, editor. 6th International Conference of Ancient DNA and Associated Biomolecules. Tel Aviv, Israel: Ancient Biomolecules; 2002. p. 166.

[32] Cavalieri D, McGovern PE, Hartl DL, Mortimer R, Polsinelli M. Evidence for S. cerevisiae fermentation in ancient wine. J Mol Evol. 2003;57 Suppl 1:S226-32.

[33] Zink A, Nerlich AG. Molecular analyses of the "Pharaos:" Feasibility of molecular studies in ancient Egyptian material. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2003;121:109-11.

[34] Zink AR, Grabner W, Reischl U, Wolf H, Nerlich AG. Molecular study on human tuberculosis in three geographically distinct and time delineated populations from ancient Egypt. Epidemiol Infect. 2003;130:239-49.

[35] Zink AR, Sola C, Reischl U, Grabner W, Rastogi N, Wolf H, et al. Characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNAs from Egyptian mummies by spoligotyping. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:359-67.

[36] Paabo S, Poinar H, Serre D, Jaenicke-Despres V, Hebler J, Rohland N, et al. Genetic analyses from ancient DNA. Annu Rev Genet. 2004;38:645-79.

[37] Gilbert MT, Barnes I, Collins MJ, Smith C, Eklund J, Goudsmit J, et al. Long-term survival of ancient DNA in Egypt: response to Zink and Nerlich (2003). Am J Phys Anthropol. 2005;128:110-4; discussion 5-8.

[38] Mitchell D, Willerslev E, Hansen A. Damage and repair of ancient DNA. Mutat Res. 2005;571:265-76.

[39] Zink AR, Grabner W, Nerlich AG. Molecular identification of human tuberculosis in recent and historic bone tissue samples: The role of molecular techniques for the study of historic tuberculosis. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2005;126:32-47.

[40] Zink AR, Nerlich AG. Long-term survival of ancient DNA in Egypt: Reply to Gilbert et al. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2005;128:115-8.

[41] Perez-Miranda AM, Alfonso-Sanchez MA, Pena JA, Herrera RJ. Qatari DNA variation at a crossroad of human migrations. Hum Hered. 2006;61:67-79.

[42] Zink AR, Spigelman M, Schraut B, Greenblatt CL, Nerlich AG, Donoghue HD. Leishmaniasis in ancient Egypt and Upper nubia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12:1616-7.

[43] Li Y, Carroll DS, Gardner SN, Walsh MC, Vitalis EA, Damon IK. On the origin of smallpox: correlating variola phylogenics with historical smallpox records. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104:15787-92.

[44] Omran GA, Rutty GN, Jobling MA. Genetic variation of 15 autosomal STR loci in Upper (Southern) Egyptians. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2009;3:e39-44.

[45] Saunier JL, Irwin JA, Strouss KM, Ragab H, Sturk KA, Parsons TJ. Mitochondrial control region sequences from an Egyptian population sample. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2009;3:e97-103.

[46] Shotivaranon J, Chirachariyavej T, Leetrakool N, Rerkamnuaychoke B. DNA database of populations from different parts in the Kingdom of Thailand. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2009;4:e37-8.

[47] Hawass Z, Gad YZ, Ismail S, Khairat R, Fathalla D, Hasan N, et al. Ancestry and pathology in King Tutankhamun's family. JAMA. 2010;303:638-47.

[48] Woide D, Zink A, Thalhammer S. Technical note: PCR analysis of minimum target amount of ancient DNA. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2010;142:321-7.

[49] Boattini A, Castri L, Sarno S, Useli A, Cioffi M, Sazzini M, et al. mtDNA variation in East Africa unravels the history of Afro-Asiatic groups. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2013;150:375-85.

[50] Brandt G. Did Tutankhamun suffer from hypophosphatasia?--A hypothetical approach. Anthropol Anz. 2013;70:249-60.

[51] Campana MG, Bower MA, Crabtree PJ. Ancient DNA for the Archaeologist: The Future of African Research. Afr Archaeol Rev. 2013;30:21-37.

[52] Khairat R, Ball M, Chang CC, Bianucci R, Nerlich AG, Trautmann M, et al. First insights into the metagenome of Egyptian mummies using next-generation sequencing. J Appl Genet. 2013;54:309-25.

[53] Lalremruata A, Ball M, Bianucci R, Welte B, Nerlich AG, Kun JF, et al. Molecular identification of falciparum malaria and human tuberculosis co-infections in mummies from the Fayum depression (Lower Egypt). PLoS One. 2013;8:e60307.

[54] Curic G, Hercog R, Vrselja Z, Wagner J. Identification of person and quantification of human DNA recovered from mosquitoes (Culicidae). Forensic Sci Int-Gen. 2014;8:109-12.

[55] Elakkary S, Hoffmeister-Ullerich S, Schulze C, Seif E, Sheta A, Hering S, et al. Genetic polymorphisms of twelve X-STRs of the investigator Argus X-12 kit and additional six X-STR centromere region loci in an Egyptian population sample. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2014;11:26-30.

[56] Terali K, Zorlu T, Bulbul O, Gurkan C. Population genetics of 17 Y-STR markers in Turkish Cypriots from Cyprus. Forensic Sci Int Genet. 2014;10:e1-3.

[57] Allaby RG, Gutaker R, Clarke AC, Pearson N, Ware R, Palmer SA, et al. Using archaeogenomic and computational approaches to unravel the history of local adaptation in crops. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2015;370.

Dear Jan, thanks for sharing your biblio; there are tons of papers on ancient DNA but very few from Egypt. Availability is not a problem, because beside the dozens of mummies scattered in occidental muséums, there are thousands of crania, that could provide DNA as well, in those museums. Due to the afrocentric debate, I see a huge interest to consider this issue.

Dear Alain - I see! - sure, there must be a lot of samples available – given, that these samples are available for aDNA studies, this, indeed, still provokes the question why there are no more reports on ancient Egyptian DNA! To my own experience (also with a set of soft tissue from non-egyptian mummies), one working in ancient DNA gets several offers like “give it a try!” – I take a few samples, give it a try with no result – hence – no paper/report! I see a critical point in sample storage: as discussed above temperature ALONE is not the issue but in synopsis with other factors such as humidity or oxygen – therefore storage conditions after recovery from a tomb or grave is also critical – hence, the lack of data on available samples may also be due to post-excavation decay? regards, jan

Part of the issue may lie in the way you are searching, or which databases you are searching. Regarding your statement "they did not publish the whole sequence, which make people suspicious", you can always attempt to contact the researchers directly, many are willing to share copies of their original research with you if you give them credit where credit is due.

Hello, Alain: Long time. A similar question would be, why have old-DNA geneticists been more interested in Neanderthal genetics than "Cro Magnon"?