We might recall the prophetic dream of Nebuchadnezzar narrated in the Bible (Book of Daniel), which talks of a great statue made of five materials. The head, made of gold, would represent the Babylonian empire (the first). Chest and arms, of silver, would represent the Mede and Persian Empire that would follow (second). ‘Belly and thighs’ of bronze, represented the Greek empire (third). The legs of iron represented the (strong) Roman Empire (fourth). The feet were part of iron and part of clay, what would refer to a fifth empire that would rise after the fall of the Roman Empire. There have been varied interpretations, more or less inspired, but we may perhaps think at the weak clay as representing the Barbarian World (perceived as uncivilized) while iron might be seem as representing the remains of the lost Roman empire.

An inspiring correspondence was therefore established between materials and empires or ages. The next empire era might be that of maritime travels and colonial empires, what curiously relates with the interpretation of the Portuguese writer “Padre António Vieira” (1608-1697) at his posthumous writing “História do Futuro” (1718). One can think at wood and porcelain as representative materials of this period.

It followed the era of the Industrial Revolution which can be symbolized by coal and iron. The post-World War II World can be represented by artificial polymers. The Cold War can be denoted by uranium and aerial travelling by aluminum. The Information Age is obviously represented by silicon.

The dream ended with a heavy stone falling from a mountain what ruined the statue. This seemingly can be read as a major cataclysm or as the End of the World. Quite unfortunately, such a stone may well prophetize a giant asteroid dangerously menacing our beloved but badly treated Earth.

I think reign of Caesar Augustus, the first emperor of Rome is a good example. Having brought an end to the civil wars that had plagued the old Republic through both a series of bloody purges to which he was party, and the final war against Mark Antony and Cleopatra, Augustus (as he would come to be known, was keen to distance himself from this violent past. The way he did this is too complicated to go into here, but suffice to say he publically presented himself as instituting a golden age through massive public works (I found Rome clay and left it marble), military reforms, and the sponsorship of literary works such as Vergil's Aeneid that took the people back to an earlier golden age of heroes with which his own work could be compared.

This is a good answer indeed, Kathleen. Thanks. Then I infer that for Roman history the golden age/silver age is a useful historical paradigm. I am hoping to find other answers dealing with more recent history.

We might recall the prophetic dream of Nebuchadnezzar narrated in the Bible (Book of Daniel), which talks of a great statue made of five materials. The head, made of gold, would represent the Babylonian empire (the first). Chest and arms, of silver, would represent the Mede and Persian Empire that would follow (second). ‘Belly and thighs’ of bronze, represented the Greek empire (third). The legs of iron represented the (strong) Roman Empire (fourth). The feet were part of iron and part of clay, what would refer to a fifth empire that would rise after the fall of the Roman Empire. There have been varied interpretations, more or less inspired, but we may perhaps think at the weak clay as representing the Barbarian World (perceived as uncivilized) while iron might be seem as representing the remains of the lost Roman empire.

An inspiring correspondence was therefore established between materials and empires or ages. The next empire era might be that of maritime travels and colonial empires, what curiously relates with the interpretation of the Portuguese writer “Padre António Vieira” (1608-1697) at his posthumous writing “História do Futuro” (1718). One can think at wood and porcelain as representative materials of this period.

It followed the era of the Industrial Revolution which can be symbolized by coal and iron. The post-World War II World can be represented by artificial polymers. The Cold War can be denoted by uranium and aerial travelling by aluminum. The Information Age is obviously represented by silicon.

The dream ended with a heavy stone falling from a mountain what ruined the statue. This seemingly can be read as a major cataclysm or as the End of the World. Quite unfortunately, such a stone may well prophetize a giant asteroid dangerously menacing our beloved but badly treated Earth.

Excellent answer, Carlos. Obligado. Also, you add your own original interpretation of the allegory of the changing ages. Would you say that Portuguese culture has a golden and a silver age? I imagine that if you look, you can find them. The age of Camoes would be the Golden Age, and the age of Fernando Pessoa would be the Silver Age. Is that a fair opinion?

Nelson,

As you correctly mentioned this is a mythical division... and Gold is clearly present because of its association with glory, power, domination according to the ancient kingdoms and not only :-)... Could we apply the term "golden" era to something which is not related with material things... may be in a metaphoric way, yes but still it´s too rough in my opinion... in culture and arts the division and terminology become more difficult... I for example like classical composers, but others prefer neoclassical or modernists... than to answer the question where is the "golden" era becomes impossible...

Dear Nelson:

I am pleased for your interest for the greatest Portuguese national poets. Pessoa ‘prophetized’ (1912) that the truly greatest Portuguese poet of all times ─ the "supra-Camoens" ─ was yet to come. Some scholars argued that he was indeed referring to himself. The Nobel Prize winner José Saramago authored "O Ano da Morte de Ricardo Reis" (1984) based on the stimulating thought that one of the multiple literary personalities of Pessoa (heteronyms) may have survived his creator, since no official death certificate was ever issued. All this was inspired by previous legendary beliefs saying that the Portuguese king Sebastian, almost certainly killed in the battle of Alcácer Quibir (1578), might ‘one day’ return to claim his throne and recover the lost Portuguese glory. His body seemingly disappeared in the battlefield. Philip I of Portugal (II of Spain) managed to receive his remains from Morocco, which were not recognized by many. Father António Vieira was inspired by this legend, that he Christianized. Camoens was more a poet of human passions; Pessoa was more an intellectual thinker. Many Portuguese still hope for ‘silver age’.

Dear Carlos,

Yes, I appreciate Portuguese literature very much. So we cannot really speak of a "Golden Age" in Camoes´s time, an age embracing both GIl Vicent and him?

Svetlozar, I see your point that terms like "Golden Age" and "Silver Age" ultimately lack scientific objectivity. Even so, the frequent perception of many nations' cultural history is that first comes a period in which the nation produces what researchers judge to be its most universal culture, and secondly appears a period in what other researcher regard as its second most universal culture is born. The earlier period is called the Golden Age, and the later period the Silver Age. Historians of Spain, Poland, Italy, France, England have often favored such a perception about their own cultures. You say, then, that such labels are imprecise and deserve to be abandoned, because they serve no useful purpose.

Nelson, yes, this is my personal perception that labels such as golden, silver, etc. are not very meaningful. Otherwise, I am certainly aware of the common perception and the designation following these definitions..

I´ll not enter into the Portuguese "golden age", since my university colleague (although we do not each other personally... the Universidade Nova de Lisboa is rather big...) has already discussed it, and is clearly a better expert in the Portuguese affairs than myself (although I´m living in Portugal for many years and I´m interested in Portuguese history and literature).

Therefore, I´ll give another example from my country of origin Bulgaria - one of the most ancient European countries. The "Golden Age" of Bulgarian culture is believed to be during the Kingdom of King Simeon Ist the Great /893-927/. During this time, Bulgaria experienced a great political, cultural and social prosperity and glory. I recognize certainly this fact, anyway, I found other periods in the Bulgarian history later on much more appealing...

Thanks so much, Svetlozar, for an answer bearing the mark of a true scholar: even though you recognize the imprecision of such a conception, you put your negation in brackets and offer an example of an extant Golden Age in Bulgaria. My question: is such a conception in any way useful for understanding Bulgarian culture? Or should we dispense with the notion?

Having earned my Ph.D. in Hispanic Letters and Culture, I have always used the term "Golden Age" in my publications when referring to Spanish Renaissance and Baroque (much more precise). To dispense with the term would be unthinkable for most scholars in my field. Is this attitude justified? I have to make that inquiry.

Dear Nelson, in my opinion, yes, it is certainly pedagogically useful and helpful to "classify" and "position" the things in an easier and more organized manner. Therefore, the attitude in your area is perfectly understandable... :-). We all feel much more relaxed, if we could distribute the historical, cultural and other events in a scholarly and well defined manner... However, sometimes, this could lead to oversimplifications and even erroneous understanding, since the reality is much more complex...

Svetlozar, this is an ingenious solution. Since here in the U.S. we divide university study between the less advanced students (undergraduates) and the more advanced, more specialized students (graduates), perhaps we should save the label "Golden Age" for undergraduates and use more precise labels (for instance, Renaissance, Baroque, Enlightenment) on the graduate level.

Hesiod wrote that he (and us) belonged to the fifth human genus, the iron one.

All previously existed genes have disappeared.

Thanks, Demetris, for your contribution. Some historians say that history is cyclical: first comes the golden age, then the silver age, then the bronze age, then the iron age, and this cycle repeats again. Does anybody agree with this cyclical interpretation? Does history repeat?

Dear Nelson,

Your question is inspiring creative thinking a lot. I'll share some observations, however I'm not historian. It was also good exercise for me. I think, Hesiod model of Man is possible for application on cultural and chronological levels in Poland.

Speaking of the 20th century, I perceive Golden Ages in Poland, as "Belle Epoche". Lot of good industrial ideas, art, science development - until WW1 in 1914. Interwar times 1918 -1939 in Poland, appear to be similar to the Silver Ages. The postwar period, after WW2 1945 is in my opinion the Age of Bronze in Poland until 1981. Literature, cinema theaters were then saturated with absurdities and propaganda. Dominated the persecution of writers, artists, scientists, who were not in agreement with communist ideology. Time of state of war in 1981 to the fall of communism in Poland in 1989 would correspond to a dark and gloomy age of following changes - that is, the Iron Age. I think those times of social changes were even present in selected movies directed by Andrzej Wajda, ex. "Man of Iron".

Dear Beata,

I visited Poland (Alsztyn-- sorry for my spelling), and the scholars that I met were very interested in Hesiod´s model of man.

On the Golden Age in Poland, see

http://historymedren.about.com/library/text/bltxtpoland7.htm

I am aware of many scholars speaking of present-day "European" Poland as a kind of Golden Age. What do you think?

Yes definitely, you are right, Nelson. Comparing cultural development and past phases as Bronze Age, and Iron Age, we have now in Poland Golden Age. Not everything is quiet good and gold, but not so dark, as in Bronze or Iron Ages.

I wonder if this Hesiod model, which is applicable on macro levels, towards cultures development could be also appropriate to study the cultural development of the micro levels, as families ? What do you think ? Maybe there are better ancient models to describe family development ?

Probably history is cyclical in the sense of an ascending spiral, there exist oscillations around an ascending trend, if you see it as a time series data. But Hesiod wrote about totally different genus of humans that lived in well separated historical time periods (unknown to us) and then they were completely destroyed. After each destruction a new DNA-like human being was created. We are the last creation, although we have not reached our total capacity: Remember, Hesiod wrote that children will be born with white hair (you can imagine it as a consequence of human cloning, after many years from now, when the clones of an elder man will be a weak version of him/her).

Dear Beata,

Probably Hesiod had in mind only macro-models, not intimate, family ones. Yet, to judge from what happened in my country, the U.S., our "Golden Age" was the 20th century, towards the end of which (especially in the 80s and 90s) the fabric of family life seemed to come undone. Culturally, I see us floundering now, perhaps living an "Iron Age."

Dear Demetris,

On saying that children would be born with white hair, Hesiod might have meant that youth would follow the ideas of the old without providing anything new of their own. All this is speculation, though. It is difficult to interpret the allegories of the ancients.

I think there are times of mutations and times of consolidation. Talking about Golden Ages and iron Ages sounds a bit like talking about decadence, which is a problematic concept.

No, Yasmina, Golden Age means the height of a nation´s culture, Silver Age the second highest period, with Iron Age as the age of decadence. So it´s not ALL about decadence, only some of it. I agree that decadence is a problematic notion, but then so are all concepts used by historians. Think of the Renaissance: the people in Shakespeare´s time did not know they were in a Renaissance: Jakob Burkhardt invented the concept in the 19th. century. The notion of Renaissance combines a number of cultural practices in a finite number of disciplines.

Of course it is not all about decadence, I have read my Hesiod too :-). I don't really agree with the speech on Renaissance concept : for sure the concept may belong to 19th century, but people like Robert Estienne, the Manuzio family for exemple knew there was something new going on and they helped. It does not take so much to see there is a new world coming or an old world dying (keeping an eye on informations for exemple and analysing them) : people like them and like Vesalius (for the medicine) were certainly aware of the changes, call it Renaissance, Rinascimento or whatever or giving no title to it but living it...