What are the different climate change scenarios? What are the implications for the natural and agricultural landscape of northeastern Greece?
The study area reveals a shift toward xerothermic environments over time, with significant bioclimatic changes projected under the extreme RCP8.5 scenario. By 2100, de Martonne projections indicate that around 40% of agricultural areas in the eastern, southern, and western regions will face Mediterranean and semi-humid conditions, requiring supplemental irrigation for sustainability. The Emberger Index predicts that approximately 42% of natural and agricultural landscapes will experience sub-humid conditions with mild or cool winters. In comparison, 5% will face drier humid/sub-humid, warm winter conditions. These foreseen futures propose initial interpretations for key landscape conservation, natural capital, and ecosystem services management.Climate is the main driver of natural vegetation and agricultural landscape evolution [1,2]. Understanding the effects of climate, both currently and in the near and far future, is one of the most critical aspects of effective planning for landscape conservation and management and agricultural sustainability. The warm–temperate regions of the world,distinctive biomes characterized by dry summers and wet winters (Mediterranean climate), are especially vulnerable to the effects of climatic variability and the change in climate [3]. This is critically important in the Mediterranean, where a long-term coevolution of natural and cultural landscapes is documented [4]. Mediterranean Europe provides examples of some of the most complex and heterogenous landscapes and local climatic conditions in the continent, rendering intriguing problems in climate-driven landscape change prediction [5] and climate-change adaptation planning. In fact, in recent times, effort has been invested into re-evaluating the historical impact on traditional landscape development; it has long been said that the Euro-Mediterranean is too complex to allow for simple generalizations [6]. Anthropogenically induced climate change (CC) ranks high in the scientific interest hierarchy due to its expeditious spatiotemporal development and menacing nature [7]. The associated modified bioclimate poses considerable threats to the survival of living organisms, the sustainability of natural landscapes, the viability of agricultural activity, the conservation of natural resources, the maintenance, improvement, deterioration, or loss of ecosystem services, and the efficiency of management policies [8–14]. In the coming decades, Greece will appear as climatically pressurized owing to the marked transformation of the bioclimate that is already arising over the entire territory [15–17]. CC projections demonstrate notable warming under the impact of the extreme RCP8.5 climatic scenario [18,19]. By the year 2100, the near-surface temperature is expected to rise by an average value of 4.3 ◦C, resulting, thus, in a significant increase in night frosts, continual dry-spell days, and the annual number of hot days and tropical nights and growing season length and a reduction in frost days. The foreseen increase in the annual number of consecutive dry days of 30% (15.4 days) and the concomitant decline of 16% to 40% of seasonal precipitation underline a crucially drier bioclimatic footprint in the years to come [20–23]. Additionally, in the overall concept of both the projected and observed CC, the present and expected extreme weather events appear as more frequent and intensified (e.g., more severe and prolonged drought events; earlier starts and later ends of heatwave periods; and increasing trends of heavy precipitation), highlighting the climate crisis impacts on human security [24–27]. Climate projections over Greece, in conjunction with its present rather dry thermal climatic regime, give grounds for the country’s escalating susceptibility to the phenomenon of CC, which may induce far-reaching impacts on its extensive natural ecosystems and highly heterogeneous agricultural sector [28,29]. Several present and foreseen effects of CC on the natural landscapes of Greece include significant habitat alterations and elevated extinction risk for autochthonous species and vegetation communities (see, e.g., the Juniperus drupacea forests of Greece) [30], an increase in drought-related tree dieback [31], declining tree productivity and development [32], a reduction in habitat-suitable areas [33], projected altitudinal and elevational shifts and extinctions of endemic species [34], the spatial redistribution of species, invasions and biodiversity loss [35], an increased likelihood of severe wildfires and floods [36,37], and projected altered fire behavior [38]. Some of the CC impacts related to rural and agricultural areas may involve the northward shift of the agro-climatic zones [39], crop production quality decline and quantity limitation [17,40], effects on the capacity of crops to adapt [41], increased susceptibility of crops to extreme weather [42], differentiations in the geographical expansion of cultivations [43], alterations in cultivation area suitability [44], soil erosion and risk of land desertification [45], impacts on groundwater quantity and quality, limitations of surface water availability [46,47], changes in crop phenology [48], increased growing season length [49], and negative social and economic development trends in rural areas [50].Temperature and precipitation are fundamental climatic parameters and are decisive inputs for the investigation of CC. However, the overall comprehension of the magnitude of CC and its impacts on vegetation and vegetation types’ distribution is far better expressed and achieved by applying bioclimatic indices [51–53]. The bioclimatic indices’ major significance as tools for categorizing bioclimates is indisputably exhibited by their broad exploitation in climatological, bioclimatological, and agricultural research studies [54,55]. Approximately one hundred years ago, the de Martonne bioclimatic index (DMI) was proposed for the evaluation of a specific environment’s dryness degree by categorizing it into seven (7) classes, from “dry” to “extremely humid” based on the fundamental climatic parameters of air temperature and precipitation [56,57]. The DMI has been extensively implemented for the classification of the bioclimate due to its reliability, effectiveness, and validity [58,59]. Scientific investigations that frequently employ the DMI fall within the fields of climatology/bioclimatology and agricultural and land or water resources management, while the index also appears as a serviceable tool for achieving environmental assessment reports [58,60–63]. The Emberger Index (EI), commonly described as the “pluviothermic quotient Q”, categorizes the Mediterranean area’s bioclimate zones corresponding to a scheme extending from the “Per-Humid” to the “Per-Arid” type of bioclimate or bioclimatic category established on the parameters of temperature, precipitation, and evaporation. Estimations of the EI include the representation of the annual temperature by the average maximum temperature value of the hottest month (M) and the average minimum value of the coldest month (m), considering that vegetation growth appears dependable on these thermal limits. Precipitation (P) is expressed on an annual basis. At the same time, evaporation is indirectly represented by the difference between the two temperature values (M—m), owing to the EI’s increase with the latter parameter [64–66]. Also, a simplified algorithm based on the minimum winter temperature (m) falling within the range of the “Very Hot” to the “Very Cold” temperature characterizations is applied, serving the purpose of the phytoclimate classification in bioclimatic subtypes, often termed as the “Q2” [66,67]. Thus, an area’s phytoclimatic footprint is characterized through the combination of the bioclimatic types of characterizations derived from the estimates of the Q values along with the temperature conditions based on the estimates of the m values, which results in the Emberger’s Q2 bioclimatic subtypes; for example, a Q2 subtype may be described as the “Semi-Arid, Mild winter” subtype. Within the changing climate’s research framework, studies involving the implementation of the DMI and EI indices are somewhat limited in Greece. For example, Baltas [68] has denoted the variability of aridity in Northern Greece from 1965 to 1995 as being derived from the DMI characterization range of the semi-dry to very humid bioclimates. The same author estimated the bioclimatic footprint of the entire country, which described the dry to very humid classes. Another study in Northern Greece conducted by Mattas et al. [69] on the upper agricultural area of the Gallikos river basin has revealed bioclimatic variations from semi-arid to humid conditions based on climatic data over a 27-year period (1980–2006). Also, mountainous regions have been classified by Sidiropoulou et al. [70], who have characterized, respectively, northern Greece’s Mt Vermio and southern Greece’s Mt Zireia as moderately humid and humid, respectively, on the basis of climatic data during the years 1990–2019. Lappas et al. [71] revealed the bioclimatic conditions of a water district in eastern–central Greece, illustrated by the arid to very humid classes over the 1980 to 2001 timeframe. A moderate trend, between the years 1958 and 2011, toward a more dry thermal regime over the traditional agroforest system of Thriasio Plain (northwest Athens) has been shown by Mavrakis et al. [72]. Further south, Beloiu et al. [73] pinpoint the transition of Crete Island’s bioclimate from very humid to humid conditions over the 1979–2013 period. Evidently, most utilizations of the DMI concern bioclimatic studies based on past timeframes, while there has been no application, until recently, of the EI over the entire country involving past, present, and also future time-periods [18,19]. This highlights the limited scientific knowledge on the future bioclimatic development on a local scale over natural and agricultural areas, with no applications of the DMI and EI as tools for bioclimatic categorization and for projections on conditions owing to CC foreseen on a local scale in Greece. The motivation, therefore, for the conduction of the present investigation lies in the relatively limited scientific outcomes related to DMI and EI applications, along with the critical need for the protection and preservation of the natural and agricultural landscapes already threatened by the changing bioclimatic conditions. More specifically, in this study, the bioclimatic DMI and phytoclimatic EI indices are computed. Their categories are spatiotemporally illustrated, for the first time, for the present (1970–2000) and future (2030–2060; 2070–2100) climate conditions at very high resolution (~500 m) and under two specific greenhouse gas emission scenarios, namely RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. Overall, and under the framework of the LIFE-IP AdaptInGR National Project, the main objective of the present study is to outline the significant short-term and long-term bioclimatic alteration trends that are foreseen to occur and shall undoubtedly impact the already pressurized natural and anthropogenic ecosystems in northern Greece. The resulting mapping of the spatial distributions of the bioclimatic or aridity indices’ classes, coupled with the spatial statistics per class, period, and emission scenario, may be valuable tools for conducting further environmental research in the broader framework on the conservation of landscapes threatened by CC. The outcomes aim to support decisions and policy-making for regional natural capital, ecosystem services, and agricultural development management to adapt and mitigate future predicted conditions. The abovementioned approach offers novelty to the presented study and robust outcomes for further investigation.Conclusions: The study outcomes outline the bioclimatic change over the natural and agricultural landscapes of the region of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace, northeastern Greece. Thus, the present study’s innovative findings resulting from the application of both biocli-matic indices (de Martonne Index; Emberger Index) may be summarized by the following major conclusions: (a) Profoundly altered bioclimatic regimes predict trends toward more xerothermic environments under the two examined emission scenarios RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. Comparisons between the three study time frames (1971–2000; 2031–2060; 2071–2100) highlight the temporal development in the direction of more dry thermal conditions, as predicted under both emission scenarios. (b) Significant changes following the implementation of the de Martonne Index concern the long-term timeframe of the extreme RCP8.5 scenario. Owing to high emission regimes and associated global warming, by the end of the century, the more xerothermal Mediterranean and semi-humid conditions will account for approximately 40% of the investigated area. The parts to be particularly influenced are the eastern, southern, and western agricultural areas, which are projected to require increased supplementary irrigation. Natural areas may also be increasingly stressed due to reduced humidity and precipitation regimes. (c) As documented by the Emberger Index, the spatiotemporal xerothermic evolution over the investigated area follows a north–south direction. An intensified xerothermic trend under the extreme RCP8.5 is also projected by the Emberger Index in the long run. By the year 2100, a substantial part of the natural and agricultural areas amounting to nearly 42% is projected to be impacted by sub-humid, mild winter conditions and up to nearly 33% by sub-humid, cool winter conditions. The possible existence of warm winter combinations expected to impact both agricultural and natural landscapes (distribution of nearly 5%) underlines the peaking of the bioclimatic shift toward warmer and drier conditions. Moreover, the xerothermic tense can potentially cause adverse effects on a surface larger than half of the study area, containing high-value agricultural and natural areas. (d) Finally, a multi-scaled approach at the regional level should be helpful in planning for natural capital conservation, restoration, and sustainability initiatives at the landscape level. This particular studied area is diverse and complex and has several high-profile and well-studied protected natural areas or other designated areas of outstanding interest, both in its natural/semi-natural and cultural landscapes. However, new pressures from climate-associated stress may create severe problems associated primarily with water-related ecosystem services, i.e., water stress in agricultural and aquatic, wetland, and riparian areas accompanied by wildfire frequency increases. Climate adaptation analysis would require a scientifically informed and guided landscape approach. It should not be relegated only to specific landscapes or high-profile protected areas as has already been carried out in some recent initiatives. Also, it is important to carefully assess where adaptation and mitigation measures may conflict with nature conservation initiatives. It is recommended that landscape-scale approaches be taken to promote climate adaptation and climate-smart planning initiatives throughout the region of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace.
Dear friend Abbas Kashani
I hope this message finds you well. I wanted to share some insights on how climate change scenarios, particularly the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs), help us anticipate the potential impacts of greenhouse gas emissions on regions like Eastern Macedonia and Thrace in northeastern Greece.
Under the most extreme scenario, RCP8.5, projections for 2100 indicate a significant shift toward xerothermic (dry and warm) conditions. This transition could lead to drier soils and less rainfall, fundamentally altering both natural and agricultural landscapes. Notably, about 40% of agricultural areas may require increased irrigation as the region shifts toward more Mediterranean and semi-humid conditions, putting additional stress on water resources.
Ecosystems are also expected to face challenges, with reduced humidity and changing precipitation patterns threatening biodiversity and altering species distributions. The risk of wildfires and droughts is likely to rise, impacting both natural habitats and agricultural productivity.
Given these challenges, it’s crucial to focus on adaptation and mitigation strategies—such as improving irrigation efficiency, conserving water, and planning for biodiversity protection. Multi-scale, landscape-level approaches will be essential for managing ecosystem services and sustaining the region’s natural capital.
If you have any questions or would like to discuss specific adaptation strategies, please let me know. I’m happy to provide more details or resources.
Some important articles to read/cite are:
Chapter Air Pollution and Climate Change: Relationship Between Air Q...
Technical Report How to develop Green Culture with Sustainable actions for Cl...
Technical Report Green Culture: Sustainable Actions for Climate Change
Best regards,
Kosh
What solutions are there for water shortages in rural and agricultural areas in arid and semi-arid regions? Can water shortages be helped in foothill areas through aqueducts and karez?
Arid and semiarid regions are defined as areas where precipitation is less than the amount of water lost through evaporation and transpiration. Semiarid regions, where annual precipitation ranges between 250 mm and 500 mm, have slightly more water than arid areas, but water management is critical for agricultural production (FAO, 2017). Arid regions, on the other hand, receive less than 250 mm of precipitation annually and water resources are extremely limited (UNEP, 2021). Globally, arid and semiarid regions cover approximately 41% of the Earth’s land surface, and more than 2 billion people live in these areas. Farming in such regions presents significant challenges due to natural water scarcity and erratic rainfall. Water scarcity has encouraged the development of innovative irrigation strategies to increase agricultural productivity (WWAP, 2019). Water management in arid and semiarid regions is vital not only for the sustainability of agricultural output, but also for maintaining ecosystems and improving the quality of life of local communities. Effective water resource management in these areas increases agricultural productivity and enables more efficient water use (Kang et al., 2017). Climate change is increasing the pressure on water resources in arid and semiarid regions. Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events negatively affect the availability and quality of water resources. Therefore, developing flexible and sustainable irrigation strategies that can adapt to climate change is vital for the continuity of agriculture in these regions (IPCC, 2022). Effective water management in arid and semiarid regions requires the development of resilient strategies that integrate agricultural production systems with irrigation technologies and address future threats such as climate change and diminishing water resources (Kinzelbach et al., 2010). In this context, formulation of water management policies at regional and national levels plays a critical role in long-term water conservation and sustainable agriculture. Widespread adoption of modern irrigation methods, smart agricultural technologies, and water harvesting systems can be key solutions to future water scarcity challenges facing the agricultural sector in these regions Efficient water management in arid and semiarid regions is important not only to increase agricultural productivity, but also to maintain soil health, ensure sustainability of water resources, and maintain environmental balance. Another important aspect of water management in these regions is to balance crop production and water conservation by providing the right amount of water at the right time (Wang et al., 2021). Accurately determining the water needs of plants and precisely planning the duration and amount of irrigation are among the key strategies that increase water use efficiency (Gu et al., 2020). These strategies also minimize water losses, allowing water to reach larger agricultural areas.Nowadays, modern irrigation techniques and water management practices enable more efficient use of water resources and minimize water losses. Innovative methods such as drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and smart irrigation systems increase water use efficiency and reduce water stress in plants. In this section, various irrigation strategies that can be applied to arid and semiarid regions, their advantages and disadvantages, and successful application examples will be discussed. CHALLENGES OF WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID REGIONS Water management in arid and semi-arid regions poses significant challenges due to a combination of environmental, social, and economic factors. These areas, characterized by low and highly variable rainfall, high evaporation rates, and frequent droughts, are particularly vulnerable to water scarcity. The growing impacts of climate change exacerbate these challenges, leading to increased temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and prolonged drought periods, further stressing already limited water resources (Garrido et al., 2010). This creates a pressing need for effective water management strategies to ensure the sustainability of agricultural production and water supply in these regions. One of the most critical issues in water management is the over-extraction of groundwater resources, which is often the primary source of irrigation in arid and semi-arid areas. Overextraction leads to a decline in groundwater levels, land subsidence, and the degradation of water quality due to salinization and the intrusion of seawater in coastal areas (Khorrami and Malekmohammadi, 2021). As groundwater reserves are depleted, the long-term sustainability of agriculture and other water-dependent activities becomes uncertain. Moreover, the reliance on fossil groundwater—water that has accumulated over thousands of years—makes replenishment through natural means impossible within human timescales (Wada et al., 2011). This unsustainable water use threatens the agricultural economy and food security in these regions. Figure 1 illustrates the projected impact of current water consumption on future water resources. According to the World Resources Institute (WRI), this scenario represents a "business as usual" future, with global temperatures rising between 2.8 and 4.6 degrees Celsius by 2100, while inequality persists worldwide. In this scenario, countries such as Iran, India, and the entire Arabian Peninsula, along with most North African nations including Algeria, Egypt, and Libya, are expected to use at least 80% of their available water resources by 2050.Compounding these environmental issues are the social and economic challenges. Rapid population growth, urbanization, and increasing demand for water-intensive crops place additional pressure on scarce water resources (Fader et al., 2016). Conflicts over water use between agriculture, urban needs, and industry are intensifying, leading to competition and inefficiencies in water allocation. This scenario highlights the necessity of integrated water resource management (IWRM) approaches that take into account the multiple uses of water while prioritizing sustainable practices. The inadequacy of infrastructure and outdated irrigation techniques also contributes to inefficient water use. Traditional methods like flood irrigation, which is still widely used in many arid regions, result in high water losses through evaporation and runoff. According to Oweis and Hachum (2006), modernizing irrigation systems—such as adopting drip or sprinkler irrigation—can significantly reduce water losses and enhance water-use efficiency. However, the implementation of these technologies is often limited by financial constraints, lack of technical knowledge, and insufficient policy support. In conclusion, the challenges of water management in arid and semi-arid regions are multifaceted, involving environmental degradation, unsustainable water extraction, population pressures, and infrastructural limitations. Addressing these challenges requires an integrated approach that combines modern technologies, sustainable practices, and supportive policy frameworks to mitigate water scarcity and ensure long-term resilience in these vulnerable regions.SOIL MANAGEMENT AND INCREASING WATER RETENTION CAPACITY :The sustainability of agricultural production in arid and semi-arid regions heavily depends on the effectiveness of soil management strategies. Given the limited water resources in these areas, enhancing the soil's water retention capacity plays a crucial role in improving water efficiency and plant growth (Lal and Stewart, 2013). Water retention capacity varies depending on soil structure, organic matter content, soil texture, and local climatic conditions. Methods employed to increase soil water retention not only ensure efficient water use but also help plant roots remain moist for longer periods under drought conditions (Gupta et al., 2020). One of the most effective ways to improve water retention capacity in soil management is by increasing the organic matter content. Organic matter improves soil structure, thus enhancing the soil's ability to retain water. Soils enriched with organic matter hold water for extended periods, making it accessible to plant roots. Additionally, organic matter promotes the formation of soil aggregates, which improves water infiltration (Yang et al., 2022). Incorporating compost, green manure, and plant residues into the soil are primary methods for increasing organic matter levels. These practices are key components that support both soil health and water management strategies.Another important soil management strategy is the optimization of tillage techniques. Minimal tillage methods help preserve soil structure, allowing water to remain in the soil for a longer period. While conventional deep tillage techniques can lead to water loss, minimum tillage strategies aid in retaining surface moisture in the soil (Lv et al., 2023). Additionally, surface covering techniques such as mulching reduce water loss through evaporation by conserving soil moisture and regulating soil temperature. Mulching contributes to the successful implementation of water management strategies by enhancing the soil's water retention capacity (El-Beltagi et al., 2022). Controlling soil salinity is another crucial soil management strategy that enhances water retention capacity. In arid and semi-arid regions, excessive irrigation and poor drainage conditions can lead to salt accumulation in the soil. Soil salinity restricts the ability of plant roots to access water, thereby increasing water stress. To prevent salinization, it is essential to establish proper drainage systems and implement controlled irrigation techniques (Singh, 2021). These strategies support the more efficient use of water in the soil and ensure suitable moisture conditions for plant growth.Furrow irrigation, on the other hand, involves directing water through furrows dug along the field, allowing the water to reach the plant's root zone more directly. While this method can still lead to water losses, it improves water use efficiency by 30% compared to flood irrigation (Fahong et al., 2004). Traditional irrigation methods are advantageous due to their low investment costs and ease of implementation. However, they also have drawbacks such as soil salinization, unequal water distribution, and water waste. • Modern irrigation methods In order to maximize water efficiency and reduce water loss, modern irrigation techniques are developed. Drip irrigation systems, which deliver water directly to the plant’s root zone in the form of droplets, can achieve water use efficiencies of 90-95% (Capra & Scicolone, 2008). This method prevents water wastage and reduces water stress in plants. As of 2020, approximately 10% of agricultural areas globally that use modern irrigation methods are irrigated with drip irrigation systems (FAO, 2017). Sprinkler irrigation involves applying water to plant surfaces through pressurized pipes and sprinklers, ensuring even distribution across a wider area. This method is suitable for various plant species and soil conditions, maintaining water use efficiency between 70-85% (Evans and Sadler, 2008).Modern irrigation techniques have been developed to maximize water efficiency and reduce water loss. • Subsurface drip irrigation Subsurface drip irrigation systems involve delivering water directly to the plant’s root zone through underground pipes. This method prevents water loss through evaporation and allows plants to utilize water more efficiently. Subsurface irrigation systems can achieve water use efficiencies of up to 95%, offering the highest efficiency compared to other irrigation methods (Ayars et al., 1999). However, the installation and maintenance of subsurface irrigation systems are more expensive and complex than other methods. The applicability of subsurface irrigation systems depends on soil characteristics, plant species, and water availability. When properly managed, subsurface irrigation systems increase water use efficiency and support the sustainability of agricultural production. Globally, only 1-2% of agricultural areas are irrigated using subsurface systems, but this figure is increasing due to climate change and water scarcity (Skaggs et al., 2010). 4.4. Irrigation Management • Determining irrigation amounts Accurately determining irrigation amounts is critical to meet the optimal water needs of plants. Various methods and formulas are used to calculate irrigation water amounts. These methods include calculations based on soil moisture content, meteorological data (ET0), and other empirical approaches.CONCLUSION The continuous evolution of technology significantly impacts agricultural practices. Various applications, including chemical fertilizers, hormones, soil amendments, and pesticides, are widely used, along with the application of sludge and wastewater for irrigation. In addition to these agricultural practices, heavy metal contamination from factories and mining activities directly or indirectly pollutes water sources. Phytoremediation emerges as a primary method for addressing water pollution. However, there is a need for expanded research on hyperaccumulator plants suitable for this approach, particularly those effective in water remediation. It is essential to prioritize studies that create an inventory of plants suited to specific regions and climates, as water sources are increasingly threatened by environmental pollution. Consequently, focusing on hyperaccumulator plants in relation to heavy metal pollutants is crucial for mitigating water pollution and enabling the reuse of wastewater after remediation.
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Martin Hilmi added a reply
April 24
A most interesting question and discussion. One way of considering water supply and demand for arid and semi arid regions of the world is via water economics. It is not 'The' way, but one of the many perspectives that needs to be considered for arid and semi arid regions. Clearly the value of water, for agriculture cannot be really estimated, but its cost and price can. In very simplistic terms, if the cost of furnishing water to semi-arid and arid regions varies, pending on geographic location of agricultural production, it makes some regions more competitive than others. It is not only the water source that needs to be considered, in terms of, for example, the quantities it can provide, how durable and stable the supply of water is over time, and the water safety and quality, but most importantly its distribution costs and prices. Thus, the prices paid by farmers, for example, will vary, and thus make their crops and livestock, more or less competitive compared to the dynamic nature of agricultural prices within a defined production and harvest cycle. Waste water valorisation is an option, but still requires costs and prices to be considered, not to mention setting up the water distribution system of such, for example, from urban to rural areas. Further, there is a need also to consider, among the many other factors, that of virtual water. For example, sending crops and livestock products from one region of a country to another, is not only distributing the crop and livestock itself, but the water contained within. Hence, if farmer X sends his or her produce from a rural area to an urban area, the farmer X is also sending virtual water to the urban area. The same can be done by farmer Y. However, if farmer Y pays less for water than farmer X, farmer Y will have an advantage. Moreover, if virtual water is being distributed within a country, it may seem, somewhat economically non logical, to set up water supply systems to farmers that cannot compete with farmer Y and what he or she pays for water. Indeed, a focus on agricultural water specialization regions within a country makes sense economically, i.e. investing in regions that can be supplied with water at a lower cost then others. This is a sad reality, and creates inequality, but is within an economic logic, mainly based on market forces alone. However, it should be remembered that water prices are in reality social water prices, as more often than not, water supply is publicly provided by and publicly priced by. One good example of this, to a degree, was when i was teaching introduction to water economics, i got my students to: 1) brush their teeth using bottled water paid at market prices and then brush there teeth using water from a publicly owned tap (fountain); 2) then i would ask my students to water a small plant with bottled water paid at market prices and then water a small plant using water from a publicly owned tap (fountain). I would then ask students to recount how there water usage behaviour may have changed or not changed within these two experiential learning exercises.
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Abdelhak Maghchiche added a reply
April 19
Implement modern irrigation like drip systems and improve soil management by increasing organic matter and optimizing tillage to combat water shortages in arid regions. Aqueducts and karez systems can further aid foothill areas by transporting water from distant sources.
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Martin Hilmi added a reply
April 24
A most interesting question and discussion. One way of considering water supply and demand for arid and semi arid regions of the world is via water economics. It is not 'The' way, but one of the many perspectives that needs to be considered for arid and semi arid regions. Clearly the value of water, for agriculture cannot be really estimated, but its cost and price can. In very simplistic terms, if the cost of furnishing water to semi-arid and arid regions varies, pending on geographic location of agricultural production, it makes some regions more competitive than others. It is not only the water source that needs to be considered, in terms of, for example, the quantities it can provide, how durable and stable the supply of water is over time, and the water safety and quality, but most importantly its distribution costs and prices. Thus, the prices paid by farmers, for example, will vary, and thus make their crops and livestock, more or less competitive compared to the dynamic nature of agricultural prices within a defined production and harvest cycle. Waste water valorisation is an option, but still requires costs and prices to be considered, not to mention setting up the water distribution system of such, for example, from urban to rural areas. Further, there is a need also to consider, among the many other factors, that of virtual water. For example, sending crops and livestock products from one region of a country to another, is not only distributing the crop and livestock itself, but the water contained within. Hence, if farmer X sends his or her produce from a rural area to an urban area, the farmer X is also sending virtual water to the urban area. The same can be done by farmer Y. However, if farmer Y pays less for water than farmer X, farmer Y will have an advantage. Moreover, if virtual water is being distributed within a country, it may seem, somewhat economically non logical, to set up water supply systems to farmers that cannot compete with farmer Y and what he or she pays for water. Indeed, a focus on agricultural water specialization regions within a country makes sense economically, i.e. investing in regions that can be supplied with water at a lower cost then others. This is a sad reality, and creates inequality, but is within an economic logic, mainly based on market forces alone. However, it should be remembered that water prices are in reality social water prices, as more often than not, water supply is publicly provided by and publicly priced by. One good example of this, to a degree, was when i was teaching introduction to water economics, i got my students to: 1) brush their teeth using bottled water paid at market prices and then brush there teeth using water from a publicly owned tap (fountain); 2) then i would ask my students to water a small plant with bottled water paid at market prices and then water a small plant using water from a publicly owned tap (fountain). I would then ask students to recount how there water usage behaviour may have changed or not changed within these two experiential learning exercises.
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Boishali Dutta added a reply
3 days ago
Different conservation tillage operations should be applied, the recycling of water resources whould be encouraged. Mulches can be used of different types which will conserve the soil moisture by reducing evaporation. Water budgeting and efficient use of available water by adopting efficient irrigation systems like drip irrigation can be opted. Also, rainwater harvesting should be encouraged.
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Abbas Kashani
- University of Mohaghegh Ardabili
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I’m pleased to share my latest article, "Advanced climate modeling frameworks: state-of-the-art techniques, uncertainties, and the principle of responsibility, July 2025, Modeling Earth Systems and Environment 11(5)
Article Advanced climate modeling frameworks: state-of-the-art techn...
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