As I understand it, the polaron is the result of the interaction of electrons and phonons. To form an exciton, phonons only interfere.
In any case, the polaron can be distinguished from any other quasiparticles by the characteristic nonmonotonic temperature dependence of its stability. In the limit of high and low temperatures, the polaron does not exist. In the low-temperature limit, the phonons are frozen out, and in the temperature limit much higher than the Debye temperature, the polaron either thermally decomposes or becomes unobservable.