What role do artificial lakes around large cities play in climate change? What role do vegetation belts play in climate change in cities and villages?

The increasing impacts of climate change, rising sea levels, unpredictable weather conditions, unforeseen natural events, natural disasters, extinction of biodiversity, and the vulnerability of ecosystems are causing concerns across the globe. Amidst the environmental vulnerabilities and unique socio-economic contexts, cities worldwide face severe challenges in ensuring sustainable development. Therefore, climate change adaptation and mitigation are critical components of planning and developing future smart cities. Smart cities leverage technology and data to improve urban infrastructure, enhance quality of life, and reduce environmental impacts. Here are some key strategies for adaptation and mitigation in smart cities. It is crucial to stress the equal need for adaptation and mitigation strategies to ensure effective climate change adaptation. Adaptation strategies include developing resilient infrastructure, providing early warning systems, effective water management, and public health initiatives. Mitigation strategies include but are not limited to integrating renewable energy technologies, energy efficiency measures, sustainable transportation systems, increasing urban greenery, implementing carbon capture, implementing storage technologies, and Implementing practices that reduce waste, promote recycling, and encourage the reuse of materials. This paper highlights that by integrating these strategies, future smart cities can effectively address the challenges posed by climate change, enhancing resilience and sustainability while improving the quality of life for their residents. A few initiatives to integrate technology and community engagement are also discussed, underlining the crucial role of community participation in the fight against climate change. Cities often lack capacities to develop measures to tackle the impacts of climate change quickly. That leaves its residents at the bottom of the socio-economic scale vulnerable to climate change’s negative consequences. Timely investment in developing climate-resilient infrastructure will reduce the effects of extreme weather and foster development. Less pollution, better waste management, and more green spaces improve the quality of life for the residents of all cities. (UNFCCC, 2023) As per the U.S. Global Change Research Program, we will likely continue to witness extreme weather events with increased magnitude and frequency unless drastic changes prevent global temperatures from rising more than 1.50 C. (USGCRP, 2018) These events will continue interacting with complex systems, eventually setting off their ripple effects akin to toppling dominoes. In the increasing climate challenges, smart cities are hopeful and innovative. These urban environments integrated with information and communication technologies (ICT) can transform urban planning and management. This paper highlights some climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies. It also underlines the challenges and opportunities to integrate them to address the climate change challenges. The scope of future research is also included.Climate Change Adaptation Strategies Adaptation to climate change in future smart cities is crucial to ensuring urban resilience and sustainability. (Rezvani et al., 2023) Smart cities use technology, data, and innovation to improve the quality of life while addressing environmental challenges. Climate change adaptation strategies for smart cities can focus on various sectors, such as energy, water management, transportation, and urban planning. Below are some of the key adaptation strategies: a. Smart Infrastructure Green Buildings: Integrating energy-efficient designs with renewable energy sources (e.g., solar panels, green roofs) that can reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions while withstanding extreme weather conditions. Resilient Water Systems: Using sensors and smart meters to monitor water usage and detect leaks. Smart irrigation systems can optimise water use based on real-time weather data. Flood-Resilient Designs: Incorporating permeable surfaces, urban wetlands, and stormwater retention systems can reduce the impact of heavy rainfall and flooding.b. Data-Driven Climate Monitoring IoT Sensors: Installing sensors throughout the city to monitor air quality, temperature, humidity, and environmental changes in real-time. This data can help anticipate extreme weather events and inform residents and city officials. Predictive Analytics: AI and machine learning algorithms can analyse historical and real-time data to predict climate-related risks such as heatwaves, floods, and wildfires, allowing for proactive responses. c. Sustainable Mobility Electric and Autonomous Vehicles: To reduce greenhouse gas emissions, encourage using electric vehicles (EVs) and develop infrastructure like charging stations. Autonomous cars can optimise traffic flow, reduce congestion, and minimise pollution. (Tyagi and Vishwakarma, 2022) Public Transit and Micromobility: Expanding efficient, lowemission public transportation networks and supporting micromobility options (e.g., e-bikes and scooters) can reduce the urban carbon footprint. d. Energy Transition and Grid Resilience Smart Grids: Cities can adopt decentralised energy systems such as microgrids, which integrate renewable energy sources (e.g., wind, solar) and enhance the resilience of power supplies during extreme weather events. (Tyagi and Vishwakarma, 2021) Energy Storage: Investing in battery storage systems can help balance the supply and demand for renewable energy, ensuring a continuous power supply during outages. e. Urban Green Spaces Nature-Based Solutions: Planting more urban forests, creating green roofs, and expanding parks can help mitigate heat island effects, improve air quality, and reduce flood risks. Biodiversity: Smart cities can enhance biodiversity by integrating ecological corridors and urban wildlife habitats, improving ecosystem resilience and providing natural climate adaptation benefits. f. Building Social and Community Resilience Citizen Engagement Platforms: Creating apps and online platforms to engage citizens in monitoring environmental changes, reporting hazards, and accessing emergency alerts. Climate Education: Public awareness programs that educate citizens about climate change's impacts and their role in enhancing resilience through sustainable practices. g. Heat and Disaster Management Heat-Resilient Urban Design: Developing shaded areas, reflective materials for buildings, and cooling centres can help cities manage heat waves and reduce heat stress. Disaster Preparedness Plans: Smart cities can use technology to develop comprehensive disaster preparedness and response strategies, ensuring rapid response and efficient evacuation during climate-related disasters. h. Circular Economy and Waste Management Smart Waste Systems: Implementing IoT-enabled waste bins and recycling systems to optimise waste collection routes and improve recycling efficiency. Resource Recovery: Promoting a circular economy where materials are reused and recycled, reducing the environmental impact and resource depletion. i. Policy and Governance Data-Driven Policymaking: Governments in smart cities can use climate data to create policies that promote adaptation measures and ensure compliance with climate goals. Incentives for Green Practices: Providing financial incentives for businesses and residents who adopt climate-smart practices such as installing solar panels or using low-energy appliances. j. Collaborative Global Networks Smart City Alliances: Building global partnerships between smart cities to share best practices, data, and innovations for addressing climate challenges. This international collaboration can enhance the collective ability to adapt to changing climate conditions. Incorporating these strategies into the urban fabric of future smart cities can enable them to adapt effectively to climate change while fostering sustainable growth and resilience.Climate Change Mitigation Strategies Climate change mitigation strategies in future smart cities focus on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and transitioning to more sustainable systems. (Behbood et al., 2023) Using technology, data-driven solutions, and urban planning, smart cities aim to lower their environmental impact while improving the quality of life for their inhabitants. Below are some key climate change mitigation strategies for smart cities: a. Renewable Energy Integration Solar and Wind Power: Increasing renewable energy sources like solar panels on rooftops, wind farms, and community solar projects can reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Decentralised Energy Systems: Microgrids and local energy systems that use renewable energy can reduce transmission losses and increase the resilience of energy supplies. b. Energy Efficiency Smart Buildings: Advanced building management systems can monitor and optimise energy use in real-time. Automated lighting, HVAC systems, and smart appliances can also significantly reduce energy consumption.Retrofitting Existing Infrastructure: Upgrading old buildings with energy-efficient insulation, windows, and lighting reduces energy waste and carbon emissions. c. Sustainable Mobility Electric Vehicles (EVs): Expanding the infrastructure for electric vehicles, including public charging stations and EV adoption incentives, reduces transportation emissions. Public Transit and Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS): Encouraging efficient public transit systems and integrated mobility services that combine biking, ridesharing, and walking can reduce the number of private vehicles on the road. Autonomous Vehicles: Autonomous electric vehicles can optimise traffic flow, reduce congestion, and improve fuel efficiency by using real-time data to manage traffic systems. d. Smart Grids and Energy Storage Smart Grid Technologies: Implementing smart grids that use advanced sensors, meters, and communication technologies can optimise electricity distribution, integrate renewable energy, and reduce energy waste. Battery Storage Systems: Storing excess renewable energy in battery systems allows cities to balance supply and demand, reducing the need for fossil-fuel-based backup power. e. Circular Economy Waste-to-Energy: Using waste-to-energy technologies, cities can convert organic waste into biogas or electricity, reducing landfill emissions and generating clean energy. Smart Waste Management: IoT-based systems can optimise waste collection routes, reduce fuel consumption, and improve recycling rates by separating recyclables at the source. f. Carbon Sequestration Urban Green Spaces: Expanding urban forests, parks, and green roofs helps sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide. These green areas also mitigate the urban heat island effect and improve air quality. Vertical Gardens and Green Walls: Using vertical spaces for vegetation in densely populated areas absorbs CO2, enhances biodiversity, and provides thermal regulation. g. Sustainable Urban Planning Compact, Mixed-Use Development: Designing cities with higher density, mixed-use neighbourhoods reduce the need for long commutes and encourages walking and cycling, reducing emissions from transportation. Transit-Oriented Development (TOD): Building housing, offices, and other amenities around public transit hubs encourages the use of sustainable transportation modes and minimises car dependence. h. Digital Solutions for Emission Reduction Real-Time Data Monitoring: Smart cities can use sensors, IoT devices, and big data analytics to monitor energy usage, transportation patterns, and emissions in real-time. This data helps optimise city operations and minimise carbon footprints. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: AI and ML can optimise energy distribution, forecast demand, and reduce energy use in buildings by predicting heating, cooling, and lighting needs. (Tyagi et al., 2023) i. Clean Industry and Green Technologies Industrial Energy Efficiency: Encouraging industries to adopt energy-efficient technologies and processes can significantly reduce emissions from manufacturing and production. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Developing CCS technologies to capture and store CO2 emissions from industrial processes can help mitigate emissions from sectors that are difficult to decarbonise, such as cement and steel. j. Water and Resource Management Smart Water Management: Smart water systems that use sensors to detect leaks, optimise irrigation, and manage water distribution help reduce energy consumption associated with water treatment and pumping. Water-Energy Nexus: By improving water efficiency, cities can reduce energy use in water treatment and distribution, lowering emissions. k. Behavioural Change and Public Engagement Sustainable Lifestyles: Encouraging citizens to adopt sustainable habits such as reducing energy consumption, using public transportation, and minimising waste through educational campaigns and incentives can contribute significantly to emission reductions. Carbon Tracking Apps: Cities can develop apps that help residents track their carbon footprint and make more sustainable choices for energy use, transportation, and waste. l. Decarbonizing Urban Logistics Electric Delivery Vehicles: Promoting using electric or hydrogen-powered delivery vehicles for urban logistics can help cut emissions from the growing e-commerce sector. Urban Distribution Centres: Setting up local distribution centres reduces the need for long-distance transportation while optimising delivery routes with AI, which further minimises emissions. m. Policy and Incentives Carbon Pricing and Taxation: Implementing carbon pricing policies or taxes can incentivise businesses and individuals to reduce carbon emissions. Green Procurement: Governments can adopt green procurement practices, ensuring that public spending supports sustainable products and services.

Climate change has emerged as our generation’s most significant and perplexing challenge. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Special Report, Global Warming of 1.5 degrees Celsius (IPCC Special Report), warns that the world has already warmed by 1.0 degrees Celsius since pre-industrial levels, and that at the current rate of 0.2 degrees Celsius per decade, it will reach 1.5 degrees Celsius between 2030 and 2052. (IPCC, 2018). That report responds to the IPCC’s request from the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) “to provide a Special Report in 2018 on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways contained in the Decision of the 21st Conference of Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to adopt the Paris Agreement,” and it addresses the UNFCCC Parties’ request. Leading scientists and experts on climate change have urged rapid action since the Earth is now in a state of emergency (Lenton et al., 2019). According to a recent study, the melting of the Amundsen Sea Embayment, a glacial system in West Antarctica, is one of the major tipping points that our planet is rapidly nearing. The glacier’s grounding line, which is where the ice, ocean, and bedrock converge, is in danger of permanent retreat. This might cause the rest of the West Antarctica ice sheet to collapse like dominoes, raising the sea level by three metres (Lenton et al., 2019). According to the study, there is now no longer any time to intervene to stop these tipping points (Lenton et al., 2019). Our oceans have warmed steadily since the 1970s and have absorbed more than 90% of the extra heat in the climate system, according to the IPCC’s Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere (IPCC, 2019). This has led to surface acidification, which has had a negative impact on warm-water coral reefs (IPCC, 2019). From the equator to the poles, ocean acidification has caused adjustments in the geographic range and seasonal activity of the main groups of marine animals, changing species composition and the development of marine ecosystems (IPCC, 2019). The increase in temperature, altered precipitation patterns, and frequency of extreme weather events brought on by climate change have already impacted food security (IPCC, 2019). Africa’s pastoral systems are producing less livestock at decreasing rates of growth (IPCC, 2019). Thus, the world has a very short window of opportunity to act effectively (Staden and Musco, 2010). Little focus appears to be given to locally driven adaptation because climate change is seen as a global issue (Sharma and Tomar, 2010). Local governments have become crucial players in the fight against climate change (Betsill and Bulkeley, 2007; IPCC, 2014). The Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC recognised how the climate change issue has changed through time at its 21st session in 2015. A global network of cities committed to constructing a low-carbon and sustainable future is being actively sought after by international organisations like C40 and Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI). Municipalities and local governments (urban areas) are becoming more visible and are becoming increasingly important in the dynamically shifting climate change negotiations (Bulkeley, 2015). Climate Change Governance All facets of society are represented in governance systems, including the State, MNCs, Civil Society, International Governmental Organizations, and Scientific Community. There are numerous institutions and people involved in the governance of climate change, thus it is not just about one particular player. For the purpose of developing and putting into practise effective climate policies, governance institutions at all levels- local, national, and international are required. A worldwide response is necessary to the problem of climate change. To put it briefly, the governance of the climate entails cooperation and teamwork among all different stakeholders in order to reach mutually agreeable decisions. When all the impacted interests jointly engage in face-to-face discourse, bringing their diverse viewpoints to the table to deliberate on the problems they face together, planning procedures are really collaborative (Innes and Booher, 2010). This diversity of viewpoints creates new opportunities for problem solving and the transfer of information and skills from one group to another, all while ensuring that the interests of the various groups are protected. Reduced adversarial interactions, redressed power and resource imbalances among stakeholders, and consensus-building are the ultimate goals of collaborative procedures (Innes and Booher, 2010). A solution can only be reached when all the persons involved make a decision jointly.Mapping the Cities in Climate Change Governance Cities play a significant role in climate change. Cities use 78% of the world’s energy and generate more than 60% of greenhouse gas emissions, according to UN Habitat. However, they only make up less than 2% of the Earth’s surface (UNFCCC, 2021). Poor and low-income communities are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change, in part because many of them live on the margins of society, in unstable buildings, and in areas that are more prone to flooding, landslides, and earthquakes, but also because they lack the resources, emergency response systems, and capacity to deal with such events. This is particularly obvious in underdeveloped nations (Kumar, 2021). Cities play a crucial part in the governance framework for addressing the issue of climate change. The Joint Work Programme was formed by UN-Habitat, UNEP, the World Bank, and Cities Alliance to help cities in developing countries incorporate environmental considerations into urban policymaking (UNFCCC, 2011). If information exchange is promoted at all levels, the work that cities are now doing to address mitigation and adaptation can only strengthen and improve global policymaking negotiations. This involves greater research on cities and climate change locally and worldwide improved strategic thinking between national and municipal governments, and the gathering of aggregated data on the role of cities in climate change (Kumar, 2021). Urban local bodies (ULBs) play a significant role in tackling climate change through adaptation strategies like generating income, providing affordable housing for marginalised communities, protecting ecosystems, and developing infrastructure that is climate resilient. Despite this, they are still constrained by a lack of funding and almost all of them are dependent on their national and state governments. The multi-level governance architecture in India is entirely biassed in favour of the national government’s dominating and decisive role (Jorgensen et al., 2015). Despite the 74th amendment to the Indian Constitution’s provision, there is no decentralised power in Indian ULBs. In this article, we examine the issue at hand and make the case that Indian urban local governments must play a clear role in the country’s multilateral system for managing climate change. In the next part, we present three key arguments for why Indian cities should be given a prominent role in the politics of climate change. Then, in the section that follows, we give a brief review of India’s multi-level governance system and highlight the myriad problems that local governments encounter under the country’s current multilateral governance system. Finally, we propose a potential framework that cities might use to create an adaptation plan at the municipal level. Materials and Methods This article uses a desk-based review to identify and consider planned and implemented climate governance in Indian cities. To do this, we reviewed citylevel master plans, climate resilience documents, Smart City Plans and state-level State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs), and sectoral reports of Indian cities with a million-plus population and small scale cities. These were supplemented by comprehensive searches for peer-reviewed literature for specific cities and gray literature from national and international climate governance. Important climate change Stakeholders in India Extreme Weather Conditions are severely Impacting Indian Cities Many of the dangers associated with climate change on a global scale are concentrated in metropolitan areas, according to the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC, 2014). Climate change is already causing extreme weather events like floods and heat waves in Indian cities like Kanpur, Kolkata, and Chennai (UNISDR, 2012; Shaw et al., 2010). Due to sea level rise, cities located along long stretches of coastline or significant rivers are constantly at danger of flooding (Beermann et al., 2016). For instance, Kerala, India, saw its worst flood in 94 years in 2018. The weakening of the Indian monsoon and the moistening of the tropical troposphere, which are the main causes of the Kerala floods, have both been linked to climate change in studies (Hunt and Menon, 2020). Similar to other susceptible cities, Mumbai is also at risk from many climate change-related hazards, including the threat of tropical cyclones, significant precipitation, and sea level rise (Dhiman et al., 2019).

Cities are increasingly recognized as significant producers and able managers of carbon emission.1 They have become the predominant source of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions—perhaps as much as 70% by some accounts2 —and places where vulnerability to climate change may be acute. For the world’s major cities, climate change is therefore becoming an issue of increasing political and environmental significance. But how cities go about addressing the issue of climate change is not yet well understood. The competency and capacity of local government to address a multi-layered environmental problem such as climate change is largely determined by the legal structures within which it is embedded, but also by factors such as critical individuals, past successes, business consensus, public opinion, market opportunities, and environmental advocacy.3 Climate change policy at national and international levels has developed significantly over the past two decades. In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was adopted at the Rio Summit with countries pledging to “prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system” and to inventory and report on their greenhouse gas (“GHG”) emissions.4 In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol established manda-tory targets for industrialized countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases by 2008 through 2012, along with a range of economic instruments designed to assist with this goal.5 Over the past decade, negotiations have continued as the economic instruments of the Kyoto Protocol, including the Clean Development Mechanism, Emissions Trading, and Joint Implementation, were finalized.6 Although not all countries are on track to meet their targets under the Kyoto Protocol—and the United States remains outside of it—negotiations are now under way to develop a “post-2012” agreement.7 To date, most analysis has focused on the role of nation-states in the design, promotion, and implementation of various “post-2012” policy architectures and instruments. A growing body of literature is pointing to the emergence of a range of non-nation state actors, such as multinational companies, carbon trading and offset organizations, and global cities, that have entered this policy arena and have developed their own initiatives and approaches to addressing this issue.floating cities will require new technological solutions and new living strategies. This will likely involve sharing space, food, and energy resources. The new floating cities will offer new opportunities for spatial organization and the processes within these environments. 1.1. Urbanism in Perspective of Climate Change The magnitude of climate change beyond the next few decades will depend primarily on the global anthropogenic production of greenhouse gasses (GHGs) and on the remaining uncertainties regarding Earth’s sensitivity to these emissions. The Kyoto Protocol identifies six major GHGs: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbon, and sulfur hexafluoride, all of which are linked to human activity (World Bank 2010). Several well-known factors contribute to this crisis, including energy generation, sewage treatment, landfilling, fuel for transport, industrialization, urbanization, the burning of fossil fuels, agriculture, water pollution, changes in land cover, and deforestation. Collectively, these activities contribute to the depletion of resources and the degradation of the ozone layer. Climate change mitigation refers to any action aimed at permanently eliminating or reducing the long-term risks and threats resulting from climate change to human life and property (Adah et al. 2017; Asif and Kamran 2012). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines mitigation as “an anthropogenic intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gasses” (IPCC 2007). This includes strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance greenhouse gas sinks. These strategies encompass highly diverse fields and cover a broad range of sectors responsible for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Barker and Jenkins 2007). These mitigation strategies are divided into short-term, medium-term, and long-term strategies. Climate change adaptation refers to the process of preparing for and proactively adjusting to climate change, addressing both negative impacts as well as potential opportunities (Bicknell et al. 2009; Asif and Kamran 2012). It is defined as the ability of a system to adjust to climate change, including climate variability and extremes, to moderate potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences (Asif and Kamran 2012; Adah et al. 2017).Addressing the above challenges will require profound changes, not only in energy sources, technology, and protective measures but also in urban and architectural design, culture, and lifestyle. It will take more than just implementing green technologies; it will require rethinking how we live and reshaping the basic structure of our communities. Cities are dynamic systems that face unique climate impacts; their adaptation must be location-specific and tailored to local circumstances. In managing climate change risks and building long-term resilience, cities have to understand their exposure and sensitivity to a given set of impacts. Moreover, they need to develop responsive policies and investments that address these vulnerabilities. The CIB Agenda 21 on Sustainable Construction, published in 1999, provided a detailed overview of the concepts, issues, and challenges related to attaining sustainable development and construction. This document, along with other local or regional agendas, offers guidance on the implementation of appropriate measures based on local contexts (Sjöström and Bakens 2010). In 2015, the UN defined the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a plan for eradicating poverty and advancing social, economic, and environmental development globally by 2030. It was part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UN 2017). In 2019, the European Union introduced the “Green Deal”, Europe’s new growth strategy to transform into a modern, green, circular, resource-efficient, and competitive economy. The Green Deal seeks to achieve zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, with economic growth decoupled from the use of resources (Brás et al. 2019). Its objectives cover many areas, including biodiversity, sustainable agriculture, the elimination of pollution, climate action, and a sustainable industry