What is the trend of climate change in a region? And what solutions are there to combat this trend of change?

Temperature and precipitation are the main components of the climate that affect human settlements. Global warming (GW) increases the risk of extreme weather events, such as heatwaves (HWs), dry spells (DSs) and flooding (FL). The IPCC [1] (p. 82) states, “It is virtually certain that the frequency and intensity of hot extremes and the intensity and duration of heatwaves have increased since 1950 and will further increase in the future even if global warming is stabilized at 1.5 ◦C. The frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation events have increased over a majority of those land regions with good observational coverage (high confidence) and will extremely likely increase over most land regions with additional global warming”.Summer HWs have increased in frequency and duration in most of the world since the 1960s [2,3]. Trends show that, in the future, with a warmer climate and increased mean temperatures, heatwaves will become more intense, longer lasting, and/or more frequent [4]. Hence, it is highly likely that climate change causes an increase in HWs, which negatively affect human health. The increase in extreme heat events, as a result of GW, seems to be accompanied by an increase in the variability of precipitation, with a progressive increase in periods of drought and extreme precipitation. Greater warming over land alters key water cycle characteristics. The rates of change in mean precipitation and runoff, and their variability, increase with global warming. “The frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation events have increased since the 1950s over most land area for which observational data are sufficient for trend analysis (high confidence) and human-induced climate change is likely the main driver. Human-induced climate change has contributed to increases in agricultural and ecological droughts in some regions due to increased land evapotranspiration (medium confidence)” [1] (p. 8). However, the variation in drought periods is much more uncertain. It affects certain regions, but not on a global scale [1]. Precipitation deficits and changes in evapotranspiration determine net water availability. A lack of sufficient soil moisture, sometimes amplified by an increased atmospheric evaporative demand, leads to agricultural and ecological droughts. A lack of runoff and surface water leads to hydrological droughts [5–9]. The Mediterranean region, and especially the Iberian Peninsula, are hotspots of the global warming (GW) process. . Over the past few decades, a substantial body of research has indicated that the rate of temperature increase in the region is significantly faster than the global average, with Spain being particularly prominent in this trend [10–15]. Studies based on observational data and climate models have revealed a significant rise in temperatures in the Mediterranean region from the second half of the twentieth century to the early twenty-first century. These results are aligned with predictions from global and regional climate models [1]. In addition, in the CMIP5 ensemble of global climate models, the Western Mediterranean region shows a notable warming trend, particularly during summer, which is closely correlated with an increase in extreme temperature events [13]. According to the results of the CMIP6 historical models, the average temperature in Spain between 1971 and 2022 has increased by 1.6 ◦C, which is slightly above the Mediterranean temperature rise (1.58 ◦C) and well above the world average (1.19 ◦C). The Mediterranean region, with a dense and aging population, is one of the world’s areas most affected by climate change due to the increasing frequency and intensity of heatwaves [16–21] and prolonged droughts [22,23]. Evidence suggests that both the frequency and intensity of heatwaves have risen across Spain and other European countries. An analysis of European heatwaves from 1971 to 2010 by Russo et al. [24] identified a marked increase in frequency in the Mediterranean, with Spain emerging as one of the most severely impacted countries [15,25–29]. In parallel, European countries, and Spain in particular, have experienced significant changes in precipitation patterns under the influence of climate change [30,31]. Projections suggest that the overall average annual precipitation in the Mediterranean region will decrease in the future, with increasing periods of drought, while the frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events may also increase. This trend is particularly pronounced in areas close to the Mediterranean coast, where there has been a significant increase in periods of drought and intense rainfall [12,32]. The great variability in the rainfall regime in the Mediterranean region and in Spain is another widely studied research topic [33,34]. Despite these insights, much of the existing literature has primarily concentrated on changes in total precipitation. The interactions between different types of extreme precip-itation events are often overlooked. Additionally, there remains a gap in understanding the driving mechanisms behind shifts in precipitation patterns and the regional variability under diverse geographical conditions [35,36]. Amid the ongoing shifts driven by climate change, the link between temperature and precipitation changes has become more apparent, particularly during extreme events [37,38]. Studies have shown a strong negative correlation between rising temperatures, especially maximum temperatures, and reduced rainfall and increased droughts in the Mediterranean region and Spain [39,40]. Further analyses have deepened this understanding, revealing that extreme high temperatures are closely linked to reduced precipitation, whereas an increase in nighttime minimum temperatures is positively correlated with a rise in extreme precipitation events [32]. In summary, although there has been substantial research on climate change’s impact on Spain’s climate, several research gaps remain. First, most studies have concentrated on relatively short time frames and lack an in-depth analysis of climate change trends over longer timescales. Second, the complex interactions between temperature and precipitation changes, and the associations and driving factors of extreme events, have not been sufficiently explored. Lastly, the variability in responses to climate change across geographical and climatic regions requires further investigation [35,36]. To better understand and predict changes in climate patterns, climate classification systems are essential tools. Commonly used systems worldwide include the Köppen–Geiger climate classification, the Thornthwaite climate classification, the Papadakis climate classification, the Trewartha climate classification, and ASHRAE Climate Zones, among others. The Köppen–Geiger climate classification is one of the most widely used systems. Initially proposed by Wladimir Köppen in the late nineteenth century [41,42] and later refined [43], it classifies global climates based on monthly averages of temperature and precipitation. This system divides global climates into 5 major categories and 30 subcategories. It offers an effective way to describe macro-characteristics of climate zones and their potential shifts with climate change [44,45]. In recent years, updates to the Köppen classification maps have incorporated 32 climate models from CMIP5 and high-resolution climate datasets, to enhance the accuracy of predictions and classifications for present and future climate scenarios [46].These climate classification systems not only help researchers to categorize various climate types but also provide a foundation for predicting the impacts of climate change. The Köppen–Geiger system, in particular, remains a cornerstone in climate research due to its adaptability to various climate data and scenarios. This makes it highly effective for tasks such as global vegetation mapping, ecological modeling, and climate impact assessments [47,48]. Spain has applied several climate classification systems to study regional climate dynamics and their impacts. Using information from the years 1931–1960, Inocencio Font, a member of the Spanish National Institute of Meteorology (the predecessor of the current AEMET), developed in 1983 [49] a climate proposal for the Iberian Peninsula. This classification, which is based fundamentally on two factors, the continentality index and the rainfall regime, adapts quite precisely to the specificity of climates in Spain. However, it does not consider the significant climate change that has occurred since 1960. Another important contribution was made by Martín-Vide and Olcina Cantos [50]. In this study, the authors proposed a climate classification based mainly on physiographic criteria, according to precipitation and mean annual temperature, seasonal rainfall, and thermal amplitude, among other characteristics. In addition to these studies, scholars in Spain have employed other climate classification methods to understand various climatic and ecological aspects. The Papadakis climate classification, which focuses on bioclimatic zones defined by temperature and humidity, is particularly useful for agricultural and ecological studies. Recent research has used this method to assess the impacts of climate change on the suitability of various Mediterranean crops in Spain [51]. In order to evaluate the energy efficiency of buildings, the adaptation of the European Energy Performance of Buildings Directive [52] has been implemented through the Technical Building Code (TBC), which divides the territory into climate zones and evaluates buildings’ energy performance based on these zones [53]. The Technical Building Code (TBC) segments Spain according to climate seasons. Some authors [54] have critically discussed the TBC climate classification, and proposed an alternative that is better adapted to the warming experienced by Spain in recent decades. In assessments of building comfort and energy efficiency, the ASHRAE climate classification has also been widely used. Studies have shown that ASHRAE standards [55] are useful for assessing thermal comfort in mixed-mode and naturally ventilated buildings. However, the standards often need adaptations to account for the Mediterranean climate. Optimizations of ASHRAE standards through adaptive comfort models have been proposed to better fit Spanish climates. These can be used to improve energy simulations and optimize HVAC systems, to enhance building performance and occupant comfort [56,57]. However, among all the studies that analyze the climate in Spain, the Köppen–Geiger classification is undoubtedly the most commonly used. This classification has been widely applied to study regional climate changes and predict future trends. The State Meteorological Agency (AEMET) has provided an extensive analysis of the changes in Köppen climate types in Spain from 1951 to 2020 [58]. Building on these climate classification systems and understanding the dynamics of temperature and precipitation changes in the Mediterranean region, particularly in Spain, are crucial for assessing the impacts of climate change [59,60]. Climate is the prevailing weather conditions over a long period of time. In fact, the climate of a region is made up of a set of elements and factors that result from the changes in each element due to climatic factors. This creates special conditions in terms of weather that are unique for each region (Doulabian et al., 2021). Although the flow regime shows seasonal variations in river flow, it does not provide accurate information on the magnitude and frequency of floods and droughts. The study of flood behavior is very important because they are able to carry significant amounts of sediment and play an influential role in canal formation. Climate change has led to changes in the worldwide hydrological regime in recent decades, so that the likelihood of exposure to maximum climatic events such as floods has increased. Since increasing this probability for future periods could have detrimental effects on human societies, in recent years, research on this issue has been considered for various catchments around the world (HassanMohammed et al., 2021; Eslaminezhad et al., 2022). Hydrological hazards occur as a result of changes in the frequency and intensity of rainfall, rising temperatures and changes in land use. Global warming has led to increasing rainfall and decreasing snowfall in winter, rising the river levels and increasing river discharges. This increase causes life and property losses and increases the likelihood of flooding. Therefore, by examining the factors affecting the change in flood intensity and appropriate management practices such as the development of watershed management, forestry, etc., the volume of flood damage can be reduced in the basin. Changes in climatic parameters such as precipitation affect the river flow regime. Given the impact of climate change on human life, an effort to understand more about climate change events is essential. The metropolis of Mashhad has a wide geographical location in the alluvial plain. Being located between the sedimentary heights of Kopehdagh and Hezarmasjed has led to the creation of a special morphology for the alluvial plain of Mashhad. The Kashafrood River drains all the rivers of Mashhad plain and the drainage rivers of the Binalood heights pass through Mashhad city and discharge into the Kashafrood River. The physical development of the city over the years has led to changes in the morphology of the city’s rivers, and in some areas on the riverbeds, high-rise structures have been built with high importance and have increased the likelihood of hazards (Azamizade et al., 2021).The structures that have been created due to the beautiful landscape in the highlands of the metropolis of Mashhad are built exactly on waterways. As a result of the reduction in water infiltration, the runoff volume created is generally high, which in turn increases the likelihood of flooding and its severity in residential and commercial areas. These issues make the city vulnerable to increases periodic floods (Eslaminezhad et al., 2020). Ghorbani (2002) used 40 years of meteorological statistics at Gorgan Station to study climate change. The rate of change in temperature and precipitation was investigated by the simple linear regression method. According to the results, no significant changes in temperature were observed but rainfall decreased. In our country Azizi et al. (2004) studied the presence or absence of temperature and precipitation trends. Asgari et al. (2006) studied the trend of eleven precipitation indices across the country and found that in about two-thirds of countries, the annual precipitation index had a negative and positive trend in wet days and heavy rainfall days, respectively. Hosseinzadeh et al. (2007) investigated the issue of floods and flooding in Mashhad and expressed the indirect effects of urban expansion within catchment areas and the possibility of flood intensification in the urban context. Avand et al. (2011) Investigated the effects of climate change and land use on flood prone areas in the Tajan watershed of Iran. The results showed that elevation (21.55), distance from the river (15.28), land use (11.1), slope (10.58), and rainfall (6.8) are the most important factors affecting flooding in this basin. The factors were modified according to land use changes and climate changes and the models were revised. Landuse and climate forecasting in this region indicate that land use change, like decreased forest cover (−77.19 km2 ) and reduced rangeland (−218.83 km2 ) near rivers and downstream, can be expected and rainfall is projected to increase (under both scenarios). These changes would result in increased probabilities of flooding in the downstream portion of the watershed and near the sea. Darand et al. (2013) investigated the temperature and precipitation behavior at Kermanshah station. The results showed that cold extreme indices in Kermanshah are decreasing while extreme warm indices are increasing. Sayemuzzaman et al. (2014) examined the trend of seasonal and annual rainfall in North Carolina, USA. In order to analyze the annual and seasonal temporal and spatial trends, they used the Mann- Kendall test for uniform distribution of 249 precipitation data in North Carolina during the statistical period (1950–2009), respectively, to determine its trend and significance. The local trend of precipitation (mountainous, foothills and coastal) was also determined by the tests mentioned above. Before using statistical test, pre-bleaching method was used to eliminate the correlation effect of precipitation data series. The results show a significant increasing and decreasing trend in winter and autumn rainfall, respectively. For annual, spring and summer rainfall, a combined (increasing/decreasing) trend has been identified. Significant trends were detected in only 8, 7, 4 and 10 stations out of 249 stations in winter, spring, summer and autumn, respectively. The amount of annual precipitation varies between 5.5 to 9 mm per year. In spatial trend analysis, increased precipitation has been recorded in mountainous and coastal areas throughout the period except in winter. In the foothills area, the trend is rising in the summer and autumn, but decreasing in the winter and spring. Modarres et al. (2016( studied the great changes in the flood and the severity of drought in Iran for the years 1950 to 2010, with changes in the time interval in some stations. Both increasing and decreasing trends were observed for drought severity and flood magnitude in different climate regions and major basins of Iran using these tests. The increase in flood magnitude and drought severity can be attributed partly to land use changes, an annual rainfall negative trend, a maximum rainfall increasing trend, and inappropriate water resources management policies.Waikar (2014) has calculated that the rate of water discharge in a drainage basin has an inverse relationship with drainage density. In this case, factors such as walling the banks of floodways and removing the mazes change the characteristics and morphology of the river. Ahmad et al. (2015) investigated the precipitation changes at 15 stations in Pakistan’s Swat River basin over a 51- year period (1961-2011). They used nonparametric Mann-Kendall and Spearman statistical tests to detect monthly, seasonal, and annual precipitation trends. The results of monthly, seasonal, and annual precipitation show a combination of positive (incremental) and negative (detractive) trends. One station in particular, Sayed Sharif station, recorded the most significant monthly rainfall. On a seasonal time scale, the precipitation trend has changed from summer to autumn.Sayed Sharif station showed the highest positive trend (7.48 mm/year) in annual precipitation. Across the Swat River basin, a statistically significant trend was found for the annual rainfall series. The lower Swat basin, however, showed the maximum increase in precipitation (2.18 mm/year). Also, the performance of MannKendall and Spearman tests was constant at the significantly confirmed level. Zhou et al. (2019) examined the effects of recent urban development on hydrological runoff and urban flood volume in a large city in northern China, and compare the effects of urbanization with the effects of climate change under two representative focus paths (RCPs 2.6 and 8.5). They then map the urban drainage system to reduce flood volume for future adaptation strategies. The results show that urbanization has led to an annual increase in surface runoff of 208 to 413%, However, changes in urban flood volume can vary greatly depending on the performance of the drainage system during development. In particular, urbanization changes in the expected annual flood volume range from 194 to 942 percent, which is much greater than the effects of climate change under the RCP 2.6 scenario (64 to 200 percent). Sun et al. (2021) examined an urban rainstorm model and a scenario simulation method in downtown Shanghai. First, the flood risks in the study area under the influence of future climate change were investigated using a simulation with different rainfall return periods. They then evaluated the benefits of traditional drainage system adaptation measures and low-impact development (LID) practices in reducing urban flood risks. The results show that the volume of urban floods increases non-linearly with increasing rainfall intensity under climate change. The maximum flood zone increases accordingly and is much more sensitive to smaller rainfall events. Both traditional drainage adaptation measures and LID practices can effectively reduce floods. Pal et al. (2022) explore future floods in India due to climate change and land use. Human activities and related carbon emissions are a major cause of land use and climate change, which has a significant impact on floods. They provide flood sensitivity maps for various future periods (up to 2100) using a combination of remote sensing data and GIS modeling. To quantify future flood susceptibility to various flooding factors, the Global Circulation Model (GCM) of precipitation and land use and land cover (LULC) data are predicted. They evaluated the current flood sensitivity model through the receiver performance characteristic curve (ROC), in which the area under the curve (AUC) shows 91.57% accuracy of this flood sensitivity model and can be used to model future flood sensitivity. Based on the predicted LULC, rainfall and flood sensitivity, the results of the study indicate that the maximum monthly rainfall in 2100 will increase by approximately 40 to 50 mm, while the conversion of natural vegetation into agricultural land and is about 0.071 million m2 and the area of severe flooding will now increase to 122% (0.15 million km2 ).A flood is considered as one of the Natural disasters and the limiting factor of development, especially along coastlines and river banks. Therefore, studies of flooding and flood prevention are important in water resources management. It is beneficial to identify flood-prone areas in watersheds when planning infrastructure programs for rural, agricultural and industrial development. Due to the fact that the Kashafrud watershed has critical and supercritical flood potential in some areas, especially in Mashhad and Chenaran, the importance of studying changes in the intensity and duration of floods increases. Kashafrud river basin is a part of Qaraqoom catchment in Iran. This catchment is located in the northeast of thecountry and in the north of Khorasan Razavi province. It has an area of 15,650 km2 . In the Kashfrud watershed, several authors conducted studies on flooding. BaniWaheb et al. (2006) investigated regional flooding in the Western Kashafrud river basin. The results showed that among the factors affecting the flood, the average of maximum 24-h precipitation and the percentage of area covered by vegetation had a more significant effect on the maximum instantaneous discharge values than other factors. Barati et al. (2011) analyzed the regional flood frequency in the Kashafrud catchment using the linear moment method. Based on the linear moment diagram and the Zdist statistic, the distribution of generalized limit values has been identified as an appropriate distribution for the study area. Sayari et al. (2011) compared two models of general atmospheric circulation in predicting climatic parameters and water needs of plants under climate change in the Kashafrud River basin. The results showed that the average annual rainfall with the model (CGCM2) and two scenarios (A2, B2) decreased by 13 and 16%, respectively. But for the model (HADCM3), the average annual rainfall was increased by 2 and 8%. The model (CCCM2) and two scenarios (A2 and B2) decreased by 13 and 16 percent. Azamizadeh et al. (2019) investigated the flooding potential of Kashafrud river basin of Mashhad by SCS method in CIS environment. The results showed that 68.25% of total basin area has normal flood potential, 25.5% is critical, 6.25% has supercritical flood potential. Helmi and Shahidi investigated the impact of drought on the water quality of Kashfroud river using precipitation, temperature, and quality data from six stations over a 30-year period. They found that during drought, water quality parameters such as TDS, EC, Ca, Mg, Na, SO4-, HCO3-, and Cl- increased significantly compared to the long-term average. The concentration of Cl- reached a maximum of 7.66 mg/l at Olang Asadi station. Additionally, the increase in temperature during drought led to the highest water quality changes at Olang Asadi station. Overall, the study concludes that drought, coupled with reduced rainfall and increased temperature, results in decreased water quality, particularly downstream. The purpose of this study was to examine the statistical trend of monthly and annual series, flood discharges of the Kashafrud river basin. Therefore, statistical data of the last 65 years related to the monthly and annual series of the station were examined using Excel and SPSS software.

Harald G. Dill added a reply:

March 25

Not changing of the climate but adaptation to a changing climate. Not protection of the climate but protection of our environments

Read!

Which the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change does not talk about - An open secret. (RG SERVER)2024

Part 1 Military and Weather – Friend or Foe

Part 2 Money and Carving for Recognition the Drivers of the “anthropogenic Climate Change”

Part 3 Carbon dioxide, Climate Change and Catastrophes the Trinity of the Pseudoreligion “anthropogenic Climate Change”

Part 4 With a View through the Ozone Hole at the Apocalypse of the Political Sciences and their built-up of the Tower of Babel

Key issues The attempt to drill the deepest bore hole on Earth during the Continental Deep Drilling Project of the FR Germany failed on account of the geothermal gradient

The attempt to close the ozone hole of the atmosphere by phasing-out of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (CFC) failed. Reasons are a matter of speculations. The attempt to change the global climate by a reduction of the atmospheric carbon dioxide content is going to fail because the sun activity has been increasing and the field strength of the geogene electromagnetic field the most powerful shield against cosmic rays has been decreasing since the 16 th Century after the Little Ice Age

In Germany scientific publications about the so-called "anthropogenic climate change" with greenhouse gases as the only drivers are the true doctrine therefore I was forced to publish the impact of an increasing solar and a decreasing magnetic shield on the shaping of the landscape in the international flaggship-journal

GEOMOPHOLOGY.

DILL, H.G., BALABAN, S.-I., FÜSSL, M., PÖLLMANN, H.,, BUZATU, A., (2022) Morphostratigraphy of landform series from the Late Cretaceous to the Quaternary. The “3 + 1” model of the quadripartite watershed system at the NW edge of the Bohemian Massif.- Geomorphology: 419, 108489 (41 pp). (RE SERVER available on request)

Synopsis of climate drivers: By definition, climate is the characteristic weather of a region particularly as regards temperature and precipitation, averaged over some significant interval of time (Bates and Jackson, 2005). This definition is fully applicable to the paleo-climate from the Cretaceous to the Recent in this Central European study region (Fig. 1, 15). There are four spheres of the planet Earth which are of control on the climate particular its temperature and last-but-not least the outward appearance of the globe: (1) atmosphere, (2) lithosphere-hydrosphere, (3) asthenosphere, (4) core. (1) The atmosphere is open towards matter such as meteorite impacts (see section 5.1.5) and energy or cosmic radiation delivered from the outer space by the sun, thereby shaping significantly the landscape since more than 4530000000 years, see, e.g., the Maunder and Dalton Minima which reflect the sunspot activity. The most common theory to describe cyclicity in the geological record is the Milankovitch-forced contribution to the climate change (Wunsch, 2004). (2) The lithosphere and the hydrosphere bridging the gap into the atmosphere host the radioactive elements U and Th which are not only the key element of radiometric aged dating throughout this study but also the prime heat sources as a result of their radioactive decay (section 4.2). It gave rise to “hot granites” like the granite G 4 called “Tin Granite” in the Fichtelgebirge Mts. or the “hot shales” well represented by the alum shales of the Silurian and lower Devonian Graptolite Shales (Dill, 1985b, 1986, Lüning et al., 2000; Gambacorta et al., 2019). (3) The asthenosphere is the largest global “under-floor heating system” that draws the attention to this layer underneath the lithosphere by some of its relief valves called volcanic vents and white and black smokers (Richards and Lenardic, 2018). The volcanic zonation in the study area, the maars and hot brines mirror the evolution of a mantle plume and account for the positioning of the CEW (section 5.2.2). (4) The core is the “control center” of the strength and orientation of the magnetic field of the Planet Earth (Geo-Dynamo-Effect). It is the sphere where our quadripartite climate driving system comes full circle. The geomagnetic field shields our habitat from extraterrestrial impacts, e.g., cosmic rays and solar winds (see point 1) with consequences also on the (paleo)climate (Brauer et al., 2008; Donadini et al., 2010; Korte et al., 2011; Svensmark et al. 2017; Liu et al., 2022). The North Pole is currently moving very fast towards Siberia at a speed of between 55 km to 45 km per year which by analogy with the geological past also leaves its imprints on the climate (Livermore et al., 2020). Climate change is a multicausal process exemplified by the four spheres of the globe. And so does the evolution of a landscape( and those living beings on it) with its exogenous, endogenous, and extraterrestrial drivers being closely interlinked with each other.

HGD

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• Kazimierz Rdzanek added a reply:

April 4

The term "anthropogenic" as in "anthropogenic climate change" is etymologically from Greek meaning "man-making, "creating man", not "caused by man". To some extent it is appropriate for the Pleistocene, when climate change influenced the creation of savannas and the straightening of the posture of hominids. But modern climate change does not create man, I think.

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Cristecio Joao added a reply:

6 days ago

A tendência das mudanças climáticas em uma região varia conforme a localização, mas geralmente inclui:

ü Aumento da temperatura média -Mais ondas de calor, estações mais quentes e invernos menos rigorosos.

ü Mudanças no regime de chuvas -Em algumas regiões, pode haver secas mais prolongadas; em outras, aumento de chuvas intensas e inundações.

ü Elevação do nível do mar -Ameaça regiões costeiras com erosão, salinização e aumento da frequência de marés altas extremas.

ü Eventos climáticos extremos mais frequentes — Como ciclones, enchentes e secas severas.

No caso de regiões costeiras tropicais, como Quelimane (em Moçambique), a tendência inclui:

ü Aumento de chuvas intensas em períodos curtos.

ü Elevação do nível do mar que afeta áreas urbanas e agrícolas.

ü Vulnerabilidade maior devido à interação com o aquecimento do Oceano Índico e Pacífico.

Soluções para combater essas tendências:

Mitigação (reduzir as causas):

ü Redução de emissões de gases de efeito estufa (GEE): através de energias renováveis (solar, eólica), transporte limpo e eficiência energética.

ü Reflorestamento e preservação de ecossistemas naturais: que atuam como sumidouros de carbono.

ü Melhoria da agricultura: com técnicas menos poluentes e que capturam carbono no solo.

Adaptação (reduzir os impactos):

ü Infraestrutura resiliente: como diques, sistemas de drenagem urbana, construções elevadas.

ü Planejamento urbano e zoneamento: para evitar ocupação de áreas de risco.

ü Gestão eficiente da água: como barragens, reuso e captação da água da chuva.

ü Sistemas de alerta precoce e educação climática: para preparar a população.

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Kazimierz Rdzanek added a reply:

3 days ago

The best indicator of the climate change trend in the region is the level of the groundwater table: Its increase over 10-30 years indicates an increase in climate humidity and rainfall volume, its decrease indicates an increase in climate dryness. Lowering the level of groundwater is also the most dangerous effect on the region's environment, as groundwater feeds not only above-ground ecosystems and water intakes for people, but also rivers. During periods of drought, i.e. without rainfall lasting several months, rivers are fed only from groundwater. Water from rivers flows at a rate of about 50 km per day, which means that a river with a length of about 1000 km would dry up completely after 20 days if it was not supplied from groundwater. Its tributaries would dry up even faster, because they are shorter rivers. The critical condition of the decreasing groundwater table is its leveling with the bottom of rivers. From this point on, the river beds dry up and fill up only with short but catastrophic flows of temporary heavy rainfall – see dry valleys in the subtropical zones of the globe. Therefore, the rescue for groundwater and the environment is to retain the maximum amount of rainwater where it falls in the form of rain or snow, and to ensure that as much of this water as possible soaks into the ground and feeds the groundwater. The condition for success is to cover the entire river basin with such action. On the other hand, artificial retention reservoirs on rivers are not recommended. The large surface area of the water in the reservoirs accelerates its evaporation, i.e. losses. Second, stagnant water facilitates algal blooms, which produce toxins that poison the water of reservoirs and rivers below the reservoir. Third, reservoirs retain sand and silt carried by the river along with dead plants and animals, as well as man-made fertilizers and man-made toxins inthe river basin. Dams are subject to technical wear and tear for up to 70 years, and at the same time the reservoir silts up during this time. Together, these two factors create an increasing danger for the valley below the dam every year. In the event of a disaster, the entire lower section of the valley and the receiver, e.g. the incoming sea zone, will be contaminated with toxins, and the carbon released from the sediment of the reservoir will absorb oxygen from the water, killing most organisms. It should be added that during the dam disaster, the sum of the volume of water from the reservoir adds up to the volume of the flood wave. As a result, the flood floods more area than if there was no dam. Let us note that the hydrotechnical method of protection against a flood wave consists in damming it even higher with the help of a reservoir on the river. The only method of protection against drought and flooding is to retain rainwater in the entire river basin. Improving the retention capacity of catchments should start with spatial planning at the national level, then at the regional level and then at the local level.

Abbas Kashani

• University of Mohaghegh Ardabili