increased coastal erosion; increased storm surges, flooding during high tides, changes in ecosystems, etc.

The melting of polar ice sheets directly contributes to sea-level rise through the transfer of continental ice mass into the ocean (eustatic rise). This process is amplified by the acceleration of glacier flow resulting from the loss of buttressing ice shelves, as well as by dynamic instabilities such as marine ice sheet instability (MISI) and marine ice cliff instability (MICI). Basal ocean warming, the reduction of surface albedo, and meltwater-induced stratification further reinforce these dynamics. By contrast, the melting of sea ice has a negligible impact on global mean sea level. Importantly, sea-level rise is not spatially uniform: it is modulated by gravitational fingerprints, oceanic mass redistribution, and solid Earth responses (isostatic adjustment, geoid changes, and rotational effects). Consequently, regional variations can deviate by ±30–50% from the global mean.

Projections indicate that ice sheets may become the dominant source of sea-level rise over the coming decades and centuries, with major uncertainties associated primarily with Antarctica. These uncertainties relate to the stability of grounding lines and the potential crossing of dynamic thresholds, underscoring the need for probabilistic approaches that account for low-probability but high-impact scenarios. Regional consequences include more frequent coastal flooding, enhanced erosion, saltwater intrusion into aquifers and agricultural soils, estuarine disturbances, and increased vulnerability of infrastructure. Adaptation strategies must therefore account for local relative sea-level changes, emission trajectories, extreme events, and subsidence, while promoting nature-based solutions to enhance coastal resilience.

Hello José Ozigis. In response to your question.

The melting of terrestrial polar ice sheets (Greenland and Antarctica) directly contributes to sea level rise, as the water released from land ice enters the oceans. This phenomenon increases the risk of coastal flooding and erosion, affecting ecosystems, infrastructure, and human activities. Additionally, the influx of freshwater can alter ocean salinity and density, modifying key currents such as the thermohaline circulation and, consequently, regional climate patterns. The reduction of ice decreases the albedo, accelerating polar warming and reinforcing the melting process. Finally, sea level rise impacts coastal habitats, leading to biodiversity loss and disruption of ecosystem services.