Raman spectraThis method shows key bands of carotenoids, but has slightly lower reliability.
NIR spectroscopyThis method has been used for quantification in the agricultural sector for decades, but has worse prediction quality.
Portable chroma meter and VIS/NIR spectroscopyThis method can estimate the lycopene and β-carotene content in tomatoes.
UV-Vis spectrophotometric methodThis method can determine β-carotene in an acetone matrix, carrot matrix, sweet potato matrix, or raw chicken meat matrix.