Clausius, Kelvin, and Carnot obtained the second law of thermodynamics without conducting a “quantitative experiment”, and scientists surprisingly accepted it.

• These three individuals invented the second law of thermodynamics based on empirical phenomena: anti perpetual motion machine, heat conduction, heat diffusion, frictional heat generation, and steam engine operation requiring temperature differences ...
• Basic physical science relies on quantitative physical experiments, such as Joule's various thermal work conversion experiments. The experimental data has such a patternW=k*dt, By analyzing k, a consistent thermal work equivalent can be obtained.
• By comparison, the second law of thermodynamics lacks a quantitative experimental basis. Carnot efficiency (thermal efficiency) can be calculated using thermal work and is a matter within the scope of the first law of thermodynamics. Carnot, Clausius, and Kelvin rely on empirical speculation. These experiences are empirical phenomena without quantification.
• Before Galileo, people could derive the theory of falling objects by seeing chicken feathers fall to the ground. Seeing the sun, moon, and stars rise in the east and set in the west, one obtains the geocentric theory. The current second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat is transferred downwards, results in a Carnot efficiency of 1-T1/T2. The thinking span of the second law of thermodynamics is even more exaggerated than the previous two.
• The thermal properties derived based on Carnot efficiency=1-T1/T2 do not match the experimental results, as shown in the picture.