Overbreathing resulting in Hypocapnia - reduced carbon dioxide in the body and out breath - accompanies threat. When threat is prolonged it results in the individual moving beyond their tolerance or anxiety and resulting fight, flight or fold responses.
Reducing CO2 tightens arterioles resulting in the shunting of blood into large arteries, enabling the flight response to proceed. Similar physiological mechanisms move blood supply away from the cerebral cortex to the deep mid-bearing areas controlling emotions.
These are adapted responses and accompanied - if threat is prolonged - by respiratory alkalosis (Henderson - Hasselbalcht equation) and via the Bohr Effect a reduction of available oxygen to tissues which affects limbic system regulation via autonomic, HPA, axis, immune, and neuro-peptide mechanisms.
How robust and consistent has the effects of Hypocapnia been in preparing us to respond to threat?
These studies may help you a step forward:
A prospective study of rapid breathing and the development of posttraumatic panic disorder. Bryant, Richard A.; Creamer, Mark; O’Donnell, Meaghan; McFarlane, Alexander C.; Silove, Derrick. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy 6.4 (Jul 2014): 370-374.
Occupational health disparities among Asian Americans: A critical review with recommendations. Leong, Frederick T. L.; Mak, Stanton. Asian American Journal of Psychology 5.1 (Mar 2014): 44-52.
Changes in emotion regulation in adults with and without a history of childhood abuse following posttraumatic stress disorder treatment. Jerud, Alissa B.; Zoellner, Lori A.; Pruitt, Larry D.; Feeny, Norah C.. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 82.4 (Aug 2014): 721-730.
Thank you for this helpful reply Beatrice. I will look up these references with feedback. Good wishes, David
Here are some more papers on the topic:
Pfaltz, M.C., Grossman, P., Michael, T., Margraf, J., & Wilhelm, F.H. (2010). Physical activity and respiratory behavior in daily life of patients with panic disorder and healthy controls. Int J Psychophysiol, 78, 42-49.
Pfaltz, M.C., Michael, T., Grossman, P., Margraf, J., & Wilhelm, F.H. (2010). Instability of physical anxiety symptoms in daily life of patients with panic disorder and patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Anxiety Disord, 24, 792-798.
Pfaltz, M.C., Michael, T., Grossman, P., Blechert, J., & Wilhelm, F.H. (2009). Respiratory pathophysiology of panic disorder: An ambulatory monitoring study. Psychosom Med, 71, 869-876.
Monique Pfaltz works at our department, her email address is [email protected]
Thanks Monique, I have also found the following references that support the hypothesis that in sustained anxiety and panic attack disorder breath regulation is disturbed before the somatic symptoms develop:
Respiratory Dysregulation in Anxiety – Comprehensive Article by Frank H. Wilhelm of Stanford University Richard Gevirtz California School of Professional Psychology—San Diego and Walton T. Roth Professor ‘’Respiration is a key physiological system affecting a variety of physical processes that can act as a critical link between mind and body’’
Alicia Meuret and Co-Researchers show in their research and another U tube clip how at least an hour before the client experiences a panic attack the breathing style becomes over breathing with falling carbon dioxide levels. Treatment supported by this research showd that restoring carbon dioxide levels is an effective treatment.
Link: Out-of-the-blue panic attacks aren't without warning; data show ...
blog.smu.edu/research/.../out-of-the-blue-panic-attacks-aren’t-without-warning.
With good wishes,
David
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