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Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications

Volume 4, December 2022, 100262

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A review on fabrication methods of nanofibers and a special focus on application of cellulose nanofibers

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Abstract

Nanofibers have become significant in almost many industries due to their extraordinary engineering properties, particularly in the packaging, purification, textile, pharmaceutical, and biomedical sectors. Nano-scale fibres, also known as nanofibers, are manufactured from a variety of polymers, depending on their intended function. Most of these nanofibers were discovered to be biodegradable and biocompatible, and have the capacity to construct a highly porous structure with superior properties, making them suitable for wide array of applications, including packaging, drug delivery, medical implants such as organ and tissue grafts, wound repair, and dressing materials in the pharmaceutical industry, and as a filter or adsorbent in water treatment. It is the primary objective of this research to provide a comprehensive knowledge of nanofiber synthesis techniques, morphological, thermal, and mechanical characterizations of nanofibers, as well as their applications in industries and disciplines. This study as well includes a short glimpse of recent works on cellulose nanofibers and the current advancements of nanofibers for antimicrobial applications.

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Keywords

Nanofibers

Fabrication methods

Biomedical applications

Abbreviations

NF

Nanofiber

Nm

Nanometer

PU

Polyurethane

PLA

Polylactic acid

PLGA

Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)

PCL

Polycaprolactone

THF

Tetrahydrofuran

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid

SiO2

Silicon dioxide

SEM

Scanning electron microscopy

AFM

Atomic force microscopy

TEM

Transmission electron microscopy

XRD

X-ray diffraction

FT-IR

Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy

DTA

Differential thermal analysis

DSC

Differential scanning calorimetry

TGA

Thermogravimetric analysis

TMA

Thermomechanical analysis

DMA

Dynamic mechanical analysis

PVC

Poly vinyl chloride

Rpm

Rotation per minute

PVA

Polyvinyl alcohol

MO@CNPs

Moringa oil-loaded chitosan nanoparticles

CEO

Cinnamon essential oil

CD

Cyclodextrin

PW

Produced water

NF

Nanofiltration

UF

Ultrafiltration

RO

Reverse osmosis

MF

Microfiltration

PAN

Polyacrylonitrile

ECM

Extracellular matrix

COS

Chitosan oligosaccharides

AgNP

Silver nanoparticle

PEOT/PBT

Poly (ethylene oxide terephthalate)

PBT

Poly (butylene terephthalate)

HA

Hydroxyapatite

PDGF

Platelet-derived growth factor

MIC

Minimum inhibitory concentration

DMF

Dimethylformamide

CA

Cellulose acetate

EO

Essential oil

TEOS

Tetraethoxysilane

SF

Silk fibroin

Au

Gold

DMSO

Dimethyl sulfoxide

NaCl

Sodium chloride

NaCMC

Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose

TDA

Titanium di-isopropoxide bis(acetyl-acetonate)

BaTiO3

Barium titanate.

1. Introduction Nanotechnology is a discipline of science that studies the characteristics and functions of materials in the 0.1–100 nm dimensions range. Nanotechnology has considerable promise as a frontier research topic for advancing science and increasing economic competitiveness. To copiously comprehend the tremendous capability of nanotechnologies, some difficulties and constraints, such as the necessity for large-scale fabrication, environmental and economic concerns, such as toxicity; and low flexibility must be addressed. Nanofibers are a comparatively newly produced nanomaterial that can meet several requirements mentioned above.Many academics have been fascinated by nanofibers over the last few decades because of their intriguing size-dependent properties caused by their dimensions. Nanofibers can act as a part of day-to-day life by being used in a variety of daily items, such as batteries, solar cells, mobile phones, filtration membranes, and so on (Fattahi Meyabadi, Dadashian, Mir Mohamad Sadeghi and Ebrahimi Zanjani Asl, 2014). The quality of the nanofibers depends on the diameter, shape, and surface texture of fiber. In addition to specific surface area, fiber shape (hollow or core-shell) and diameter provides flexibility in tailoring nanofiber attributes. Nanofiber fabrication is a fascinating, stimulating, and important research topic because of its distinct structural characteristics. The morphological and elemental stability of these nanofibers are especially advantageous for a number of applications. Several research teams have successfully produced nanofibers from a wide range of inorganic and organic precursors.(Gugulothu, Barhoum, Nerella, Ajmer and Bechelany, 2019).Nanofibers, solid fibers that have two exterior dimensions of nanometers with a diameter less than 100 nm and a fiber length greater than the diameter are the most important exterior properties. The diameter of nanofibers varies depending on the polymer used and the technique of manufacture, varying in length from a few nanometers to a few micrometres. Hollow, rigid and conducting nanofibers can be defined as nanotubes, nanorods, and nanowires, respectively. Although there are many other nanofibers, in nanotechnology, the major nanofibers of interest are those made from polymers. Nanofibers have a high surface-to-volume ratio, making them an excellent substitute for traditional fibers. This property enhances their functionalization, resulting in more flexible and reinforced materials. As a result, it expands the use of nanofibers in specialized applications, such as a component of bigger structures like nano mats and scaffolds. Porosity is an additional significant attribute of nanofibers that influences properties such as fluid transport, water sorption, regulated chemical release, and efficient biochemical signal exchange. A sample's porosity can be defined as a bulk, internal, or surface attribute. It's commonly referred to as three-dimensional hollow gaps that occur between nanofiber components and are restricted by fiber molecules. The pores are hydraulically linked, resulting in continuous channels for molecules and fluids to flow via nanofibers. Nanofibers' rigidity is often higher than that of conventional fibers. Compared to bulk or thin materials, individual nanofiber mechanical characteristics may be improved. The improved orientation of polymer backbones throughout the nanofiber length, and the intensification in the toughness of filament-shaped materials as the fiber diameters drop, are primarily responsible for improving mechanical characteristics. The tensile strength of the nanofiber would be improved if the molecular chains were oriented along the longitudinal axis. The fractures and cracks that were formed on the surface of nanofibers weakened the structure of the fibers and facilitated mechanical failures.Owing to their ease of production, low cost, and reliability, these nanomaterials can be used in food, biomedical, and environmental applications. Because of their unique properties, such as drug loading, efficient encapsulation, significant therapeutic index, localized delivery, limited side effects, and the capacity to modify the release of the drug, nanofibers have received much interest for the development of the next generation of drug delivery applications. Nanofibers are good candidates for a broad range of healthcare and medical applications, including administration of drugs, tissue scaffolding, and wound dressings, due to their exceptional qualities (Almetwally, El-Sakhawy, Elshakankery and Kasem, 2017). The nanofiber membranes are highly efficient at low pressure and may be employed in air, wastewater, and blood purification. Furthermore, since the porous structures rapidly retain water at mucous surfaces through submicron-sized voids, the fibrous surface structure has a high adhesiveness to mucous layers. Nanofibers are an interesting choice for transdermal drug delivery systems due to their greater adhesion to biological surfaces (Yoo, Kim and Park, 2009).In this review, we focus on several nanofiber production methods as well as characterization methodologies to support the morphological, thermal, and mechanical characteristics under investigation. Utilization of nanofibers will also be explored in the sectors of food packaging, wastewater treatment, and biomedicine.

2. Nanofibers Nanofibers have been viewed as one of the top intriguing materials having measurements in the nanometric scope of a few tens to thousand nanometers. Nanofibers have different exceptional attributes like high surface area, good permeability, and enhanced physical, mechanical, and organic properties, which empower them to be utilized in various fields like medicinal textiles, drug delivery, food packaging, cosmetics and water treatment. 2.1. Sources Nanofibers can be produced from natural polymers like collagen, celluloses, silk fibroin, gelatin, keratin, chitosan, and synthetic polymers like polyurethane (PU), polylactic acid (PLA), poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLG/PLGA) and polycaprolactone (PCL). It has been stated that about a hundred polymers have been turned into fibers with nanometric diameters and a few meters of length (Barhoum et al., 2019; Gugulothu et al., 2019; Khan, Kharaghani and Kim, 2019; Prabhu, 2019). Natural polymers offer better biocompatibility and biological activity than synthetic polymers owing to their intrinsic bioactivity. Natural biomaterials are limited in their applicability in biomedicinal field due to their unbalanced mechanical characteristics and stability. Despite the fact that synthetic biomaterials are biologically inactive, their mechanical qualities and biostability may be tailored to match a variety of applications. As a result, combining natural materials with synthetic components to construct complexes is seen as a viable strategy to obtain high biological activity while also achieving easily controlled mechanical characteristics and biostability (Ullah and Chen, 2020). 2.2. Methods for fabrication of nanofiber Nanofibers can be produced by different fabrication techniques under unique names and categories like top-down and bottom-up methods or physical, chemical, and biological approaches or spinning and non-spinning methods (Table 1). In a top-down approach, the complex materials will be deformed into micro or nano-sized particles, whereas in a bottom-up approach, minute particles will be clustered to form novel bulk materials (For example, from 1 nm to 10 nm-sized materials). The physical method involves the application of mechanical energy or radiations of higher energy to produce nanofibers. The chemical method comes under a bottom-up approach which requires better parameters that influence the atoms or ions to merge to produce a single cluster of nanoparticles. On the other hand, the biological technique is considered an eco-friendly method that produces nanofibers by using microorganisms or by enzymatic treatment of the source (Bahrami et al., 2019; Barhoum et al., 2019; Spizzirri, Aiello, Carullo, Facente and Restuccia, 2021; Ying Zhao et al., 2016). Advantages and disadvantages of different methods of fabrication are discussed in Table 2.Table 1. Methods of fabrication and the parameters for fabrication of nanofibers.MethodsParametersPolymers/ nanoparticlesSolventsNanofiber diameterVoltage requirementApplicationsReferencesElectrospinningVoltage, viscosity, The solvent used, tip to collector distancePolyurethane/polyacrylonitrile/ polyvinylidene FluorideN, N-Dimethylformamide (DMF)150 nm11kVProtective textiles(Kumar and Prakash, 2021)Cellulose Acetate (CA)/ Essential Oil (EO)Acetone700–1500 nm120kVAntimicrobial wound dressings, antibiofilm surface(Liakos, Holban, Carzino, Lauciello and Grumezescu, 2017)Polyurethane/ Activated carbon/ cinnamon essential oilDMF and THF––Antibacterial air filter media(Son, Park and Kim, 2020)gelatin/eugenolAcetic acid/ ethanol/ water157 - 293 nm13kVActive packaging(Li et al., 2021)chitosan/polyethylene oxide/silica/ ciprofloxacinTetraethoxysilane (TEOS)/ 3-glycidyloxypropyl triethoxy silane (GPTEOS)/ acetic acid422±70 nm8–12kVWound healing(Hashemikia et al., 2021)CA/SF/Au-Agacetone and DMF140–300 nm21 kVAnticancer application(Arumugam et al., 2021)Polycaprolactone (PCL)chloroform and methanol415nm12kVClarification of juice(Udayakumar, Kirthikaa, Muthusamy, Ramakrishnan and Sivarajasekar, 2020)Self-assemblypH, ionic strength, hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forceCarboxylated ginger cellulose nanofibers and polyaniline (PAN)Ammonium persulfate50nm–3D aerogels(Wang et al., 2019)polyacrylonitrile, polyvinyl alcohol, and polyethylene oxide.DMF and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)200 µm–scaffolds for tissue engineering, catalyst supports, filters, sensors, drug delivery,(Yan et al., 2011)Xanthun gum, chitosan oligomerNaCl250–700nm–drug delivery(Mendes, Strohmenger, Goycoolea and Chronakis, 2017)Phase separationFreezing rate, Solvent type, Polymer Concentration and temperatureSodium carboxymethyl cellulose (NaCMC)/ starch(Cross linkers-sodium trimetaphosphate and aluminum sulfate);26.6 ± 5 μm–Sanitary napkin(Nair and Menon, 2020)Chitosanacetic acid/ethanol/water40–70 nm–Adsorbent(Zhao et al., 2011)PLLA, PLGA, or PDLLATHF50–500nm–Extracellular matrix(Ma and Zhang, 1999)Template synthesisTemplate shape Template pore sizeCellulose (template), Silver nanoparticles extracted from tio2 fibers Phenylalanine–phenylalanine–aspartic acid tripeptide (template), TiO2 from titanium di- isopropoxide bis(acetyl-acetonate) (TDA)alcohol solutions of titanium (IV) tetrabutoxide and silver nitrate Isopropanol40 nm - few hundreds nm 40–60 nm- -Photocatalyst Photocatalyst(Vakhrushev and Boitsova, 2021) (Li et al., 2018)Electrospun BaTiO3 NF precursors, Polyvinyl pyrrolidone, Barium acetateTetra‑butyl titanate, acetic acid, ethanol328 nm–flexible electronics(Yan et al., 2019)DrawingElectrospun Single Co-polyacrylonitrileDimethyl sulfoxide and N, N′-dimethylformamide715±42 nm–Opportunities for the preparation of high-performance carbon nanofibers.(Xu et al., 2020)Centrifugal spinningconcentration of the spinning solution, polymer proportionpolyethylene oxide, Carboxylated chitosandeionized water50 – 500 nm–tissue engineering(Spinning, 2019)Carboxymethyl chitosan, polyethylene oxidedeionized water1.91 μm - 3.22 μm–wound dressings(Li et al., 2021)Poly (lactic acid)1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoro-2-propanolbelow 500 nm–biomedical and tissue engineering(Xia, Lu and Liang, 2020)Polycaprolactone, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, TriterpenoidsChloroform, methanol––nerve tissue engineering(Amalorpavamary and Giri Dev, 2016)Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of fabrication methods.MethodAdvantagesDisadvantagesElectrospinningfibres with sizes ranging from a few nanometers to a few microns; low-cost technology; high aspect ratio; improved mechanical characteristicsInstability of the jet; limited pore size control; requirement of toxic chemicals.Self-assemblya straightforward method for making multifunctional nanofibersComplex process; High cost; Low productivityPhase separationControlled pore size and structure; minimum equipment requirementLimited to specific polymers; cannot produce long continuous fibersTemplate synthesisDifferent templates can be used to create fibres of various diametersDifficulty in removal of templateDrawingMinimal requirement of equipmentdifficult to obtain fibers less than 100 nm in diameters; discontinuous processCentrifugal spinningHigh production rate; simple and low-cost processDifficulty in collecting 2.2.1. Electrospinning Electrospinning is a widely used electrostatically driven traditional technique for producing nanofibers because of its efficiency, easy adaptability, low production cost, and simplicity (Nune, Rama, Dirisala and Chavali, 2017). The nanofibers made by this method are considered more advantageous due to their higher surface area, less fiber diameter, which ranges from nano to microscale, and good porosity (Figen, 2020). An electrospinning setup comprises four major components such as high voltage power supplier, a syringe pump, a spinneret or a needle with a blunt tip, and a collector (Fig. 2) (Nune et al., 2017; Xue et al., 2019). According to the principle of electrospinning, the fabrication of nanomaterials with the polymer of choice and suitable solvent to prepare polymer solution along with drug, peptides, nanoparticles, etc., using high voltage, i.e., the spinneret ejects the endless jet strands towards the grounded collector with the aid of high voltage applied to the liquid polymer. The interfacial tension of the polymer droplet is controlled by an applied electric field. Then the droplet is elongated to form a cone called “Taylor cone” and dislodged from the cone to form a fiber jet (Xue et al., 2019). The fiber discharge moves through the airspace, and solid polymer fiber deposits on the metal collector, which leads to the formation of the nonwoven web due to the evaporation of the solvent in the jet (Almetwally et al., 2017; Barhoum et al., 2019; Nune et al., 2017; Ibrahim and Klingner, 2020). The important parameters to be considered in this process are the type of polymer, based on the concentration, conductivity, viscosity, flow rate, nozzle to collector distance (Ibrahim and Klingner, 2020). Despite the wider usage of the electrospinning method, it has certain drawbacks like high voltage usage, which makes it less safe, low yield, and scaling up of electrospinning is expensive (Xue et al., 2019; Zhang and Lu, 2014).An electrically charged polymer jet has three instabilities that affect electrospinning. The axisymmetric Rayleigh instability fragments the polymer jet. Another instability emerges in a greater electric field than the Rayleigh instability. Non-symmetrical axis blending and whipping instability occurs from electrostatic repulsion between polymer jet surface charges in a strong electrostatic field. Whipping instability, which causes the jet to bend and stretch as it flows, must be enhanced to make thinner nanofibers (Wu et al., 2022).A wide range of electrospinning techniques was developed over the last two decades, like solution electrospinning, melt electrospinning, multiple jet electrospinning, coaxial electrospinning (Bachs-Herrera, Yousefzade, Del Valle and Puiggali, 2021; Zhao et al., 2016), magnetic field-assisted electrospinning (Zhang, Barhoum, Xiaoqing and Li, 2019). Coaxial electrospinning is used to produce core-shell nanofibers in which the bioactive molecules are kept secured inside the core and can be released on the degradation of the outer polymer coating (Yarin, 2011). For desalination by long-term membrane distillation, co-axially electrospun superhydrophobic nanofiber membranes with a 3D ordered surface are used (Woo et al., 2021). Co-axial electrospun fibres that are loaded with basic fibroblast GF (growth factor) for skin regeneration was used to facilitate the controlled release of GF (Chen et al., 2022). Immobilizing in-situ polymerized PPy-NPs by solution electrospinning led to the induction of conductive properties in PCL nanofiber scaffolds, which in turn led to enhanced simulated body fluid-biomineralization (Maharjan et al., 2020). A potential novel strategy for bone regeneration in dental and maxillofacial surgery relies on melt electrospun 3D scaffolds made of medical-grade PCL that are suited for cell adhesion and proliferation (Fuchs et al., 2019). Improved bone regeneration by fabrication of PCL/gelatin multilayer scaffold based on melt electrospinning writings and solution electrospinning (Fuchs et al., 2019).Extensive study is required to enhance mechanical stiffness (liquid and air filtration), to boost nanofiber membrane production rate and diameter (renewable energy), and synthesis 3D scaffolds (biomedical application), which will lead to the successful use of electrospun membranes in the respective sectors (Islam, Ang, Andriyana and Afifi, 2019). 2.2.2. Self-assembly A self-assembly is a bottom-up approach in which the small materials will be gathered to form defined molecular materials like nanofibers. Convergent synthesis is a chemical process that synthesizes molecules required for self-assembly (Nayak, Padhye, Kyratzis, Truong and Arnold, 2012). The morphology and other characteristics of the nanofiber produced by this method depend on the interaction between molecules. The self-assembly mechanism is mediated by ionic and hydrogen bonds, which are weak covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, or van der Waals interaction. These interactions are weaker when isolated but stronger when combined (Ozin et al., 2009; Xu et al., 2018; Zhang, 2003). Although this method can fabricate thinner and multifunctional nanofibers, the main drawbacks of this method are low production rates and complex manufacturing processes (Alghoraibi and Alomari, 2019).A study was conducted by Liu et al., on the anticorrosive qualities of aqueous epoxy coatings on Q235 mild steel when Tetraaniline based conducting nanofiber (TANF) was applied. The self-assembled TANF is suitable as a new corrosion inhibition pigment for the aqueous coatings due to its exceptional solubility, small nanofibrous structure, and reversible redox activity (Liu et al., 2019). By regulating the chirality and structure of the materials, it may be possible to create promising nanostructured antimicrobial materials. Yan et al. emphasised the relevance of molecular chirality in guiding the self-assembly of the amphiphilic peptides, ultimately altering their antibacterial activity (Xie et al., 2022). Due to their in-situ synthesis, spatiotemporal responsiveness, and varied bioactivity, self-assembled nanofibers show enormous potential for cancer theranostics (Liu et al., 2021), ion exchange membrane (Shen et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2022), regenerative medicine (Zhang et al., 2018) and several antimicrobial applications (Chen, Dirican and Zhang, 2019; Xie et al., 2022). Self-assembly may improve biological hierarchical control when combined with other biofabrication methods (electrospinning, laser aided bioprinting, supramolecular biofabrication), since the benefits of one technology may help to overcome the drawbacks of the other (Hedegaard and Mata, 2020). 2.2.3. Phase separation Phase separation is another method to fabricate nanofibers. In this technique, a homogeneous polymer solution is made by dissolving a polymer into a solvent like THF (Tetrahydrofuran). Then they will be allowed to separate into two phases based on physical inconsistency, with the upper polymer phase and bottom solvent phase either by adding a nonsolvent or by thermal treatment, thereby causing gelation (Zahmatkeshan et al., 2019). Gelation of polymers is considered the most significant step in phase separation since it plays a major role in maintaining the porosity and size of the polymer (Tan and Rodrigue, 2019). After gelation, the gel will be frozen by a freeze-drying method, making it easy to remove the solvent. The structure formation can be modified by using different varieties of solvents by changing the temperature and concentration of the polymer. This method of formation of nanofiber by phase separation associated with freeze-drying can also be called solid-liquid phase separation or ice segregation induced self-assembly. The mechanism of phase separation is illustrated in Fig. 3. The scaffolds and membranes produced by this method can be used in bioreactors and artificial organ transplants since it promotes cell growth and proliferation, and drug delivery. The limitations of this method are (i) more polymer usage is minimal, (ii) impossible to be used in the scale-up process (iii) time-consuming (Chen and Liu, 2015).In addition to studying 3D printing's potential for creating nanoporous metals, it has additionally been utilised to create 3D nanostructured polymeric materials with intricate geometries and adjustable pore diameters between 10 nm and 1 μm (Dong et al., 2021). Due to improved pore accessibility and surface porosity, these hierarchical polymer nanocomposites have shown improved adsorption properties and cellular activity (Hadden, Martinez-Martin, Yong, Ramaswamy and Singh, 2022). The development of lithium adsorption is limited by the conventional adsorbents' weak adsorption capacity and selectivity as well as their labor-intensive preparation procedures. Here, Cheng et al. developed a low-temperature phase separation technique that was quick, eco-friendly, and effective to create a chitosan (CS) nanofiber membrane containing 2-(Hydroxymethyl)−12-crown 4-Ether that had a high affinity for Li+ (Cheng et al., 2021). According to Ji et al., Rana chensinensis skin peptides/silver nanoparticles loaded on phase separation-based electrospun Janus nanofibers have strong antibacterial activity and outstanding biocompatibility to support tissue regeneration, drug delivery, and wound healing. It also demonstrates strong hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity, suggesting the possibility for use in oil-water separation (Ji et al., 2021). 2.2.4. Template synthesis Template-assisted synthesis is one of the impressive methods widely used for fabricating nanomaterials like tubes, fibers, and rods (Esmaeili, Rezayat, Saeedi and Mehravi, 2019). This method can be performed alone or in collaboration with a few other fabrication methods like chemical vapor depositions and sol-gel to fabricate a wide variety of nanomaterials like semiconductors, metals, polymers with electroconductivity and carbon nanotubes. DNA replication can be considered a good example for understanding the concept of template-assisted synthesis since this method needs a template or casting with the preferred nanomaterial to obtain the preferred nanomaterial (Gugulothu et al., 2019). This method is advantageous to traditional spinning methods in producing flexible materials with short lengths (Fig. 4). Two types of templates, i.e., hard and soft templates, can be employed to produce nanotubes or rods and wire-like structures, respectively. The main limitation of this method is the removal of templates after synthesis, which involves physical and chemical processes like dissolution and calcination depending on the template nature (Stojanovska et al., 2016).An efficient method of enhancing the electrochemical performance of metal oxide electrode materials is the rational construction of novel MCo2O4 hierarchical nanofibers (H-MCo2O4NFs, M = Ni, Co, and Mn) with appropriate structure and contents by a multi-step self-templating method using electrospun nanofibers precursors (Yin, Li, Yuan, Jiao and Lu, 2021). Transition metal oxides (TMOs) have emerged in recent decades as prospective contenders for a wide range of uses in different industries. Due to the remarkable qualities, they still possess, these materials are given top priority as useful materials. More research has been done on the regulated and reproducible synthesis of TMOs with desired characteristics. There are several synthetic techniques that have been established for the simple, one-step synthesis of TMOs, template-assisted synthesis stands out as an effective strategy and received more attention due to their extraordinary capacity to tailor the morphology and physicochemical characteristics. Soft-templates like block copolymers, biological substances, interfaces, surfactant are now often used to create TMOs since hard-template-assisted synthesis requires the labor-intensive procedure of removing templates, which is time-consuming (Poolakkandy and Menamparambath, 2020). Template synthesis method have been identified to be one of the apt method to fabricate porous carbons for supercapacitor applications with acceptable shape and adjustable pore size distribution (Wang et al., 2022). 2.2.5. Drawing Drawing is a method similar to dry spinning used to produce single nanofibers of longer length (Zhao et al., 2016). In this method, a droplet of the polymer, which is to be fabricated into a nanofiber, will be kept on a SiO2 surface (Almetwally et al., 2017). A glass rod or tip of the micropipette will be brought into contact with the droplet and then slowly withdrawn away from the droplet, leading to the formation of lengthier nanofiber (Fig. 5). The withdrawal rate is based on the polymer nature. The polymer solution used for the drawing will be selected based on its viscoelastic properties, i.e., it should overcome the stresses developed during pulling and undergo a higher range of deformations. The solvent used to prepare the polymer solution will be evaporated while drawing, leading to the formation of dry solid nanofiber. Some limitations of this step-by-step process are (i) it can only be carried out on a laboratory scale, (ii) the material should be more viscoelastic. Hence, the selection of material is limited (iii) when the solvent in the droplet starts evaporating. The viscosity also increases due to which the droplet gets shrunk, affecting the diameter of the fiber (Sabzehmeidani and Ghaedi, 2021).With the use of an automatic single-step drawing system called track spinning, the drawing-based approach has been further enhanced to enable continuous production. Track spinning is a way of drawing that uses two revolving tracks with opposing angles. The configuration is readily adaptable: for instance, the size and complexity of the tracks increase the velocity of production and the viability of controlling the site of drawing and, therefore, the placement of fibres (Song, Kim and Lee, 2020). The process of Carbon dioxide laser supersonic drawing (CLSD) makes it simple to create polymeric nanofibers with improved mechanical characteristics and extended chains for use in desalination and water treatment (Saleem, Trabzon, Kilic and Zaidi, 2020). 2.2.6. Centrifugal spinning Centrifugal spinning, also known as force spinning, is considered a better alternative to electrospinning for fabricating nanofibers because of its safe, faster, and higher production rate. The principle of this method is similar to the principle used in producing cotton candy (Stojanovska et al., 2016). Centrifugal spinning uses centrifugal force for producing a various range of nanofibers like polymer nanofibers, ceramic nanofiber, metal, and carbon nanofibers in a faster and safer way. The initial step of this fabrication method is the ejection of polymer solution loaded in the spinneret containing two or more orifices by centrifugal force followed by enhancement of the surface area of the polymer material by the jet stretching process it gets deposited on the collector. Eventually, the nanofibers will be produced when the polymer solution evaporates, causing solidification and contraction of the jet. The schematic illustration of centrifugal spinning is shown in Fig. 6. The parameters concerning the morphology of nanofibers produced by centrifugal spinning are viscoelasticity of the polymer, solvent type and its evaporation rate, angular velocity of the spinneret, surface tension, solution concentration, temperature, orifice diameter, orifice and collector distance (Almetwally et al., 2017; Chen, Dirican and Zhang, 2018; Zhang and Sun, 2017).The centrifugally spun Lignin Amine/Cellulose Acetate nanofibers had a good selectivity for Cu (II) adsorption, and their rates of adsorption to Cu (II) and Co (II) were mostly chemical adsorption with single molecular layer adsorption as the adsorption method. Studies comparing the production rates of electrospinning and centrifugal spinning systems revealed that the average productivity of a lab scale electrospinning is comparatively 100 times lower than that of a lab scale centrifugal spinning, which was reported to be around 50 g/h. The diameters of the produced nanofibers can also be adjusted, ranging from nanometers to micrometres, with pore structure (Atıcı, Ünlü and Yanilmaz, 2021; Chen et al., 2019). The most common uses of centrifugally spun nanofibers have been tissue engineering, pharmaceutical drug delivery, and energy production. Centrifugal spinning may also create nanofibers that may be used in composites, protective textiles, filtration, and semiconductors in addition to these main uses. To combine the benefits of the centrifugal and electrospinning technologies, the electro-centrifugal spinning technique has recently been created.

3. Applications of nanofibers Nano fibres have a wide range of applications that have piqued the interest of researchers all over the globe, including energy production, a variety of biological and medical areas, defense, the food industry, water treatment, and environmental protection (Fig. 1). Recent applications of cellulose in all the mentioned fields are discussed in Table 3. 📷Download : Download high-res image (138KB) Download : Download full-size image Fig. 1. Schematic representation of nanofiber production by Electrospinning. 📷Download : Download high-res image (374KB) Download : Download full-size image Fig. 2. Nanofiber generation by Phase seperation. 📷Download : Download high-res image (446KB) Download : Download full-size image Fig. 3. Diagrammatic representation of Template synthesis. 📷Download : Download high-res image (264KB) Download : Download full-size image Fig. 4. Production of nanofibers by Drawing. 📷Download : Download high-res image (166KB) Download : Download full-size image Fig. 5. Schematic illustration of nanofiber fabrication using Centrifugal spinning. 📷Download : Download high-res image (395KB) Download : Download full-size image Fig. 6. Application of nanofibers in various fields.Table 3. Recent applications of cellulose in various fields.IndustryApplicationsReferencesFoodFood containers that are resistant to oil and are manufactured with wood flour composites coated with cellulose nanofiber. The ionic crosslinking of carboxymethylated cellulose nanofibers at the strawberry surface forms an impermeable and transparent coating that prevents microbial growth, dehydration, and the ripening of the fruit. Polylactic acid (PLA) was reinforced using Green Synthesized Cellulose Nanofiber (R-CNF) modified by rosin, which improved mechanical characteristics of the film. E. coli and B. subtilis were shown to be more resistant to the antibacterial effects of R-CNF when combined with chitosan. Nanocomposite films with two layers of cellulose/chitosan were developed to enhance mechanical qualities, increase barrier properties, and enable for the use of volatile benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC) in active packaging. Probiotic nanocomposite film with Lactobacillus plantarum/CNF/inulin extends the shelf life of chicken fillets when wrapped on the flesh. Ethylcellulose /polycaprolactone /gelatin nanofiber + Zataria multiflora essential oil and zinc oxide nanoparticle(Hossain, Tajvidi, Bousfield and Gardner, 2021) (Kwak et al., 2021) (Niu, Liu, Song, Han and Pan, 2018) (Jiang et al., 2022) (Zabihollahi, Alizadeh, Almasi, Hanifian and Hamishekar, 2020) (Beikzadeh et al., 2021)Water treatmentAll-cellulose nanofibers (CNF) Janus hybrid sponge was used in oil-water separation since it has opposing surface wetting properties and a strong mechanical characteristic. The biomimetic CNF/CS/MMT aerogel holds potential for recycling adsorption applications, because of its strong adsorption ability for diverse heavy metal ions. A cost-effective way to remove malachite green dye from water using cellulose nanofiber and silver nanoparticle composites. The cellulose carbon fibres (CF)-carbon nanotube (CNT) polyamide (PA) nano composite enhances the hydrophobicity, penetration, surface oxygen, and evens the surface while retaining high salt rejection and high-water flow at low pressure reverse osmosis. Magnetic beads made from PVA and CNF by in-situ synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles in an alkaline aqueous media can remove cationic and anionic dye contaminants from aqueous solutions. Adsorption of Pb (II) and Fe (III) ions using hybrid nanofibers made of cellulose acetate and hydroxyapatite is economical and ecologically sustainable.(Agaba, Marriam, Tebyetekerwa and Yuanhao, 2021) (Rong et al., 2021) (Chinthalapudi, Kommaraju, Kannan, Nalluri and Varanasi, 2021) (Fajardo-Diaz et al., 2022) (Sanchez et al., 2022) (Hamad et al., 2020)BiomedicalCellulose acetate nanofiber/Graphene oxide/TiO2/Curcumin- wound healing CNF sheet spray coated with montmorillonite (MMT) and silver nanoparticles - wound regeneration scaffold Acetate free CNF/Hydroxyapatite/AgNps – tissue regenerating scaffold 10% Cellulose nanofibers/PCL extracted from waste biomass loaded with 90% curcumin – regenerative medicine Acetylated CNF/gelatin/PCL – Soft tissue engineering CNF with electrophoretically deposited Gentamicin – osteoblast specific scaffolds Cellulose/N-isopropylacrylamide hydrogel with better redox and temperature response – drug delivery(Prakash et al., 2021) (Subha et al., 2022) (Sofi et al., 2021) (Suteris et al., 2022) (Moazzami Goudarzi, Behzad, Ghasemi-Mobarakeh and Kharaziha, 2021) (Rahighi, Panahi, Akhavan and Mansoorianfar, 2021) (Zong et al., 2022) 3.1. Food packaging Bacterial invasion is the leading cause of food deterioration (Ahmed et al., 2020). To combat environmental hazards and human health concerns, government-level policies and laws must be developed, which must then be executed by regulating bodies to provide hazard-free packaging materials. As a result of globalization, food packaging must have a longer lifespan, and food quality and safety must be maintained in agreement with international standards. Innovative food packaging solutions are being enabled by incorporating bioactive molecules within polymeric nanofibers to increase stability, enhance controlled molecule delivery, and maintain antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal characteristics (Moreira, Goettems, Luiza, Terra and Alberto, 2020; Senthil Muthu Kumar et al., 2019). Foods with improved taste, color, flavor, composition, and consistency, increased bioavailability of nutrients and nutraceuticals, new packaging with enhanced mechanical, resistance, and antimicrobial properties, and nano-sensors for traceability and monitoring the condition of food during storage and transport are all examples of nano-enabled packaging applications (Nile et al., 2020).Natural antibacterial agents, such as essential oils, which are largely extracted from plants, are some of the most significant volatile substances with antimicrobial effects (Sameen et al., 2021). Shruthy Ramesh et al. used fennel seed oil along with cellulose nanoparticles to produce an ecologically sustainable biodegradable polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-based film. The antibacterial activity, biodegradability, and free radical scavenging activity of the above film surface were considerably higher than normal PVA film (Ramesh and Radhakrishnan, 2019). Lin, Gu and Cui (2019) developed a potential active food packaging material with Moringa oil-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (MO@CNPs) that had strong antibacterial activity against L. monocytogenes and S. aureus when used on cheese, with no influence on the flavor and texture of the cheese (Lin et al., 2019). According to Jiefang pan et al., for the study against mushroom rotting bacteria cinnamon essential oil (CEO) is the most preferred antimicrobial agent. To enhance its reliability and reduce its unique odor, the CEO has been encapsulated in PVA and CD-based fibers made by electrospinning. The atomization fumigating for glutaraldehyde was utilized to create chemical and physical linkages simultaneously. A measurement of the water contact angle validated the hydrophilic nature of the nanofibrous layer (Pan, Ai, Shao, Chen and Gao, 2019). 3.2. Wastewater treatment Water pollution is a serious problem all around the world. The increasing discharge of extremely dangerous organic contaminants into water bodies without adequate treatment has posed a direct threat to living creatures (Sekar and Manickam, 2019). Pesticides, surfactants, certain microbes, and other pollutants must be fully eliminated using simple and environmentally acceptable methods (Beck, Zhao, Fong and Menkhaus, 2017). The oil and gas sector generates a large amount of greasy effluent called Produced water (PW), a hazardous oil-water combination that can harm the environment if not properly treated (Halim et al., 2021). According to the predictions, more than half of the nations would face a freshwater deficit by 2025, and more than seventy percent of the countries will face a freshwater shortage by 2075. Consequently, water purification has been acquainted with the membrane of traditional water purification and wastewater treatment. Different types of membranes, including nanofiltration (NF), ultrafiltration (UF), reverse osmosis (RO), and microfiltration (MF), can be achieved by changing the pore size of the active layer (Barhoum et al., 2019).In conventional membranes, there are inherent limitations such as limited flux, fouling susceptibility, and pinhole creation during preparation processes which can be overcome by using nanofiber membranes that signify a future generation of nanocatalysts with unique capabilities to address the issue of water pollution (Barhoum et al., 2019); (Sekar and Manickam, 2019). The ability to function at low pressure, as well as their high filtering capability, are two significant advantages of these membranes (Tijing et al., 2019). It may remove submicron particles (microbes and dust) via size exclusion, but nanoparticle removal requires smaller holes which can be overcome by using Multiple layers of nanofiber membranes with excellent filter effectiveness and enhanced water flow. Heavy metals, low molecular weight organic pollutants, and oils are effectively removed from wastewater using nanofiber membranes as an effective adsorption media (Beck et al., 2017; Feng, Khulbe, Matsuura, Tabe and Ismail, 2013). Beck et al., used lignin or polyacrylonitrile (PAN) to make electrospun carbon nanofiber membranes. These carbon nanofibers have a 10-fold more adsorption capacity, two-fold quicker adsorption rates, and six-fold higher water permeability than typical activated carbon sources, which enables the lignin nanofibers to remove organic acids from polluted water effectively. Ceramic nanofiber membranes, according to Malwal and Gopinath, outperform biomaterials in terms of permeability, chemical and physical stability, and the ability to withstand harsh chemical treatment under extreme conditions. It is because of these features that they are cost-effective for use in treating wastewater (Jiang et al., 2018). Biomimetic multi-layered nanofiber membranes were developed by Ling et al., for the effective removal and reusing of environmental contaminants (e.g., heavy metal ions, proteins in water; Ling et al., 2017). 3.3. Biomedical application The skin is the protective organ present in the body that acts as a defender against microorganisms and other external factors (Garcia-Orue et al., 2017). Nanofibers bestow a number of advantages for delivering therapeutic substances with a wide range of skin-related biomedical applications, such as wound dressing, tissue repair and regeneration, and drug delivery (Sabra, Ragab, Agwa and Rohani, 2020). Electrospun nanofibers are preferred healing application since it is successful in creating highly porous nanofibers which effectively produce fibroblasts in wounds and have physical and structural qualities comparable to Extracellular matrix (ECM) that enhance the repair of failed organ functions or aid in the healing process following organ transplantation (Ghajarieh, Habibi and Talebian, 2021; Leung and Ko, 2011; Naskar and Kim, 2020). Nanofibers can be developed to have bioactivity on their own or to integrate and administer Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients in a regulated manner. Natural products having wound-healing potentials, such as herbal extracts, nanoparticles, antibiotics, and antimicrobial peptides, are among the components that can be integrated or immobilized into a nanofibrous scaffold to develop antimicrobial nanofibers (Koushki, Bahrami and Ranjbar-Mohammadi, 2018; Miguel et al., 2018; Sabra et al., 2020).Wound healing is a complicated yet precisely coordinated biological process involving diverse growth factors, cells, and extracellular matrix components (ECM) (Naskar and Kim, 2020). A wound infection slows the process of healing, which is treated with a strong antibiotic. Furthermore, the emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens imposes a large burden on the patients, which provokes the need for effective restriction of microbial growth, which lowers the risk of growing antibiotic resistance and is safe for human usage (Miguel et al., 2018). The wound-healing cycle, in general, contains overlapping stages of hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling (Homaeigohar and Boccaccini, 2020). The primary goal of wound dressing is to maintain the wound safe and free of external contaminants to keep the site hydrated, promote healing, and prevent the wound's origin from being exposed (Dreifke, Jayasuriya and Jayasuriya, 2015; Fatehi and Abbasi, 2020; Naskar and Kim, 2020). Common wound dressing products are antibacterial cream, hydrogel, ointment, antibacterial or antibiotic-loaded nanofibers. The fundamental rationale for the rising use of nanofibers in wound healing is because of the properties like biodegradability, hypoallergenic, high air permeability, the good absorptivity of secretions from the wounded area, high ratio of surface to volume, effective promotion of cell proliferation, and the prospect of pharmacological agents loaded on Nanofibers being released gradually (Ambekar and Kandasubramanian, 2019; Faegheh, Shahab, Mahmoodreza, Hamid and Leila, 2018; Koushki et al., 2018) (Fatehi and Abbasi, 2020).For wound healing application, Lanno et al., fabricated porous polycaprolactone (PCL) fiber loaded with an antibacterial drug that mimicked the original ECM (Lanno et al., 2020). 3D printed nanofibers were fabricated by loading Cefazolin drug to polycaprolactone (PCL) with a sustainable drug release time of 120 h (Visscher, Dang, Knackstedt, Hutmacher and Tran, 2018). Valarezo et al. (2013) fabricated a nonwoven PCL nanofiber mat loaded with amoxicillin with relative antimicrobial resistance against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, and Escherichia coli with an inhibition zone, 32.78±0.44, 22.11±0.60, and 9.78±0.97 respectively (Valarezo et al., 2013). A comparative study conducted between PVA/COS/AgNO3 (Polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan oligosaccharides/silver nitrate) and PVA/COS-AgNP ((Polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan oligosaccharides/silver nanoparticles) nanofibers by Chenwen Li et al. suggested that PVA/COS-AgNP have good wound healing properties since it accelerates the wound healing property more than the nanofiber made with AgNO3 (Li et al., 2013). Electrospun silk fibroin and poly (lactide-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanofiber (1: 2) for treating chronic wounds was made by Shahverdi et al., which showed significant proliferation in L929 fibroblast cells (Shahverdi et al., 2014).The replacement of injured tissue by combining live tissues, biomaterials, and growth factors is known as tissue engineering. Regeneration and repair are the two primary categories for this process which are distinguished by the subsequent tissue development. Repair may restore some original structures but entails collagen deposition and scar formation; regeneration results in the total replacement of damaged tissue by proliferating the adjacent intact cells (Nune et al., 2017). Nanofibers have the benefit of being able to be built into more complex macro structures like sutures and scaffolds. Nanofibers are also a better structural replica of the native extracellular matrix which is mostly made up of nanofibrous collagen, making them more suitable for biomedical applications like tissue engineering (Leung and Ko, 2011). The biocompatibility of scaffolds plays a significant role in the signaling pathways for the need for safe disintegration, as well as providing a substrate for tissue regeneration into defect sites (Ghajarieh et al., 2021).Tissue engineering scaffolds should resemble the natural ECM, which is made up of protein fibers with diameters in nanometers, providing a surface for cellular attachment, growth, differentiation, and organization (Dahlin, Kasper and Mikos, 2011). Silvia Grande et al., stated that even at low concentrations of polymer, plasma treatment of PEOT/PBT solutions could significantly improve the performance of the nanofibers. As a consequence, thin nanofibers with an average diameter of 290 nm were created that closely resemble the human ECM (Grande et al., 2018). The bone matrix is made up mostly of collagen and hydroxyapatite (HA) components, which helps in balancing the stiffness and toughness of the bone (Mwiiri and Daniels, 2020). Michael E. Frohbergh et al., devised a one-step process for producing electrospun and HA-containing chitosan scaffolds crosslinked with genipin as prospective periosteum replacements for bone tissue engineering (Frohbergh et al., 2012). Incorporation of HA on the surface of Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) has the potential to be used in tissue engineering since it enhances the vinculin expression because of its significant increase in osteoblast cells (MC3T3-E1; Persson et al., 2014). When non-spinnable compounds, such as growth factors, are blended with polymers, structural qualities of the electrospun nanofibers are compromised and affects the controlled release of growth factors. Baek

et al., incorporated platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF-BB) with nanofibers, thereby increasing the cell stability, proliferation, and infiltration, and upregulated key genes involved in meniscal ECM synthesis in human synovial and meniscal cells and steady release of bioactive materials (Baek, Lee, Lotz and D'Lima, 2020). When compared to standard collagen scaffolds, an electrospun nanocomposite scaffold made of polymers like alginate, chitosan, and hydroxyapatite that can promote cell penetration and proliferation minimizing scaffold disintegration for bone tissue engineering, making it suitable for regenerating bone tissue (Taemeh, Shiravandi, Korayem and Daemi, 2020).Traditional antibacterial drug delivery to the human body can result in serious side effects such as dose-dependent toxicities and microbial resistance, which can obstruct the process of healing. In this regard, recent studies have focused on developing nanofiber-based antibacterial drug delivery techniques that overcome resistance mechanisms and toxicological concerns. New generation nanofibers outperform conventional nanotechnological antibacterial medication delivery methods in terms of loading capacity, antibacterial agent encapsulation efficiency, systemic toxicity, and drug release concentration greater than the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) (Berendonk et al., 2015; Calamak, Shahbazi, Eroglu, Gultekinoglu and Ulubayram, 2017). Antibacterial drugs are seamlessly integrated into nanofibers, and antibacterial nanofibers are classified into two types: release and non-release systems. Different manufacturing tactics, such as fundamental, sophisticated, and smart strategies, can be used to tailor antibacterial drug release characteristics. Effective drug release profiles and administration of numerous drugs can be achieved by altering antibacterial nanofiber design (Calamak et al., 2017). Asadi, Ghaee, Nourmohammadi and Mashak (2020) created composite nanofibers using graphene oxide loaded with tetracycline hydrochloride to overcome the limiting applicability of zein in wound dressing applications, thereby paving the way for controlled drug release, enhancing the mechanical properties and biocompatibility (Asadi et al., 2020). Yang et al. (2020) used a side-by-side approach to synthesize PVP and ethyl cellulose nanofibers with a concurrent release of ciprofloxacin and silver nanoparticles, which have antibacterial activity. The fibers were able to rupture and discharge ciprofloxacin within 30 min. The impact was then prolonged for 72 h owing to the persistent release of silver nanoparticles, resulting in significant bacterial growth suppression (Yang et al., 2020). Liu et al. fabricated a PLLA polymer fiber incorporated with doxorubicin. They tested its efficiency as a local treatment for secondary hepatic carcinoma by enveloping the entire liver with fiber. The antibiotic was rapidly released from the fiber in the first 24 h, allowing it to settle in the liver tissue. It also greatly slowed tumor growth and lengthened the survival time of mice (Liu et al., 2013).

4. Recent advances in nanofiber fabrication and applications Nanofibers have provided various innovations, from drug delivery to therapeutic fabrics, food packaging to juice clarification and food processing and even the novelty in production and characterization methods are continually advancing. Nanofibers have offered several innovations in drug delivery, and its production and characterization methods are continually developing. The application of nanofibers for antimicrobial effects, particularly in the treatment of bacterial infections after implant surgery and wound care, including burn injuries, seems to be feasible. In recent years, not only for systemic drug administration but also for local drug delivery techniques, combinational therapy approaches have received much interest. Nanofiber drug delivery devices can deliver precisely the quantity required and precisely where it is needed due to the absence of systemic exposure and the necessity for greater doses for effectiveness.While novel antimicrobial agents, polymers, and nanofiber production processes provide new prospects for antimicrobial nanofiber production, certain critical obstacles must be considered. One way for bacteria to acquire antibiotic resistance is via mutating target sites or acquiring new metabolic activities. Although much study has been done on bacterial resistance to conventional antimicrobials like silver, more research is required on microorganisms acquiring resistance to new antimicrobials like chitosan and AMPs, particularly after immobilization onto nanofibers. When contemplating antimicrobial nanofibers, take into account that high biocidal effectiveness of a new antimicrobial agent does not inevitably imply efficacy when immobilised on nanofibers. Thus, in order to use these nanofiber-based antimicrobial surfaces in medical implants, significant in vivo testing is required. Hence, innovative biocidal agents and biomaterials are promising possibilities for the next generation of nontoxic antimicrobial nanofibers. These materials may contribute to high-quality medical treatment for decades to come if more study on their long-term in vivo performance is conducted.Due to recent advancements in the field of nanofibers, such as nanocomposites and hybrid systems, the sequential release of active medicinal components may now be precisely regulated to meet clinical needs. At this time, precision medicine, one of the most current advancements in future nanomedicine, may be a more attainable aim for physicians. In other words, nanofiber drug delivery systems have several benefits over commercial medications now in the pipeline of the pharmaceutical industry, such as the ability to effectively generate the required dosage for each particular patient. From the standpoint of ease of preparation, quick processing, and customizable formulation parameters, we believe electrospinning will maintain its position. The electrospun nanofibers that result may be either aligned or random, but regardless of their properties, this process allows for the fabrication of composite nanofibers that serve as a platform for hybrid nanofibers. Furthermore, in the next years, pressured gyration will get a lot more attention; nevertheless, manufacturing setup has to be more evenly distributed throughout production sites, and expertise with numerous formulation alternatives needs to be improved. It's also undeniable that regulating the release of active medicinal components from nanofiber structures is crucial. Burst release must be thoroughly controlled for an appropriate sustained release goal, which is another constraint of nanofiber compositions. Layer-by-layer technologies, the integration of a hydrophobic/hydrophilic polymer into the structure, and the composite nanofiber idea have all been studied for this purpose.

5. Future perspectives In spite of their stupendous growth, there are some downsides to the current technology in regard with their productivity. Various alternatives have been elucidated to constitute the demerits of the current technology. The quest for a novel and inventive fabrication method is still underway in an effort to simultaneously address all the problems, achieve enhanced efficiency with simpler operation techniques. Currently, synthesis of fine fibres with elated mechanical properties facilitating filtration is of prime concern and thus multi-jet electrospinning has been proposed. The forthcoming usage of aforementioned strategy would render the removal of dyes and metal ions from contaminated wastewater. The Electrospun membrane can be employed in medical sector as well owing to their functional and mechanical properties. Certain frailty needed to be remitted to attain the maximum potential of Electrospun fibres. Challenges comprises of utilization of high-end tools, relationship between the biological molecules and the fibres should be established, and preparative technology for scaling-up should be brought into light. Furthermore, another prospective of electrospinning namely, soft-template-assisted synthesis of electrospun fibres has specified properties resulting in excellent prospects for numerous potential applications in the future. Despite its merits additional prudence should be given on the product yield and post-synthetic methods to have real-time application. The accomplishments in soft-template assisted synthesis have increased researchers' quest to overcome the hindrance and make significant contributions to the fields that have received less attention. Unquestionably, these components will experience a significant breakthrough throughout the ensuing decades.

6. Conclusion An increasing number of researchers are looking into the potential applications of 1D-nanostructured organic materials in a variety of fields, including air and water filtration, drug delivery, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. These are just a few of the many fields in which these materials could be useful. To now, electrospinning is the only technology that can be efficiently scaled up, paving the way for real-world applications in industrial fabrication of 1D organic nanomaterials and polymer fibres. A single continuous cycle of electrospinning may yield many litres of polymer solution in the laboratory. It is especially important to conduct cutting-edge electrospinning research toward industrial applications today because nanofibrous media have demonstrated tremendous potential in a variety of application fields due to the fascinating specificities of electrospun nanofibers, which include their in-principle exceptionally long lengths (up to kms), large surface area and configurable porosity, intrinsic 3D topography, and functional properties. Still, it has a number of drawbacks, including difficulty in producing inorganic nanomaterials and a limited number or diversity of polymers employed in the process. They were developed to compete in the rising eco-friendly market for biocompatibility and biodegradability properties. The structural properties of the nanofibers were determined using characterization approaches based on microscopic, spectral, and crystallographic examinations after they were manufactured. Nanofibers have demonstrated their efficacy and stability as targeted drug delivery systems, wound dressing materials, organ and tissue scaffolds, implantable devices in the biomedical sectors, and packaging materials in the food sector.

Declaration of Competing Interest The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Data availability Data will be made available on request.

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Research progress, models and simulation of electrospinning technology: a review

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• Published: 13 October 2021
• Volume 57, pages 58–104, (2022)
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Abstract In recent years, nanomaterials have aroused extensive research interest in the world's material science community. Electrospinning has the advantages of wide range of available raw materials, simple process, small fiber diameter and high porosity. Electrospinning as a nanomaterial preparation technology with obvious advantages has been studied, such as its influencing parameters, physical models and computer simulation. In this review, the influencing parameters, simulation and models of electrospinning technology are summarized. In addition, the progresses in applications of the technology in biomedicine, energy and catalysis are reported. This technology has many applications in many fields, such as electrospun polymers in various aspects of biomedical engineering. The latest achievements in recent years are summarized, and the existing problems and development trends are analyzed and discussed.

Similar content being viewed by others 📷Electrospun Polymeric Nanofibers: Fundamental Aspects of Electrospinning Processes, Optimization of Electrospinning Parameters, Properties, and Applications Chapter © 2019📷The Electrospinning Process Chapter © 2021📷A review on fabrication of nanofibers via electrospinning and their applications Article 20 September 2019

Introduction Nanowires, nanowhiskers, nanofibers, nanotubes and other one-dimensional nanostructured materials have excellent performance in improving the optical, electrical, thermal and mechanical properties of functional materials and composites. Dielectric and semiconductor nanomaterials made of these one-dimensional materials are widely used in the fields of photocatalysis, sensors, drug delivery, bifunctional materials and so on [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10].Many nanofiber fabrication techniques have been developed [11], such as splitting of bicomponent fibers [12], melt blowing [13], physical drawing [14], dry–wet spinning [15], phase separation [16], self-assembling [17], centrifugal spinning [18] and electrospinning [19].Electrospinning is one of the most versatile, simplest and effective technologies compared with template polymerization and melt spraying [20,21,22,23]. It is also the only method for large-scale production of continuous nanofibers in industry [24, 25]Electrospinning also has the advantages of wide range of available raw materials, simple process, small fiber diameter and high porosity. Although electrospinning technology originated in the early twentieth century, it was not widely used until around 2000. There are quite a few research results on the instrument development and the influence of process parameters.History Electrospinning technology can be traced back to 1897. Rayleigh et al. [26,27,28,29] studied the phenomenon of charged liquid changing from cylinder to bead. In 1900, Cooley [30] applied for the world's first patent for electrospinning and invented four types of indirectly charged spinning heads—a conventional head, a coaxial head, an air assisted model and a spinneret featuring a rotating distributor. It generally believes that this is the beginning of electrospinning industrialization. However, Morton's 1902 patent on electrospinning lacks some key details [31]. Then, Zeleny [32,33,34,35,36,37] mathematically simulated the behavior of a fluid under static electricity. Anton [38,39,40,41,42,43,44] applied for many patents in the USA, France and other countries between 1931 and 1944, contributing to the electrospinning technology. In 1936, Norton [45] applied for the patent of melt electrospinning. Cellulose acetate nanofibers were prepared by electrospinning with dichloroethane and ethanol as solvents in 1938 by N.D. Rozenblum and I.V. Petryanov Sokolov in 1938. The cellulose acetate nanofibers were applied to filter materials to enhance the toughness and durability of the materials. The materials were produced in a large quantity by Tver antivirus surface ware factory in 1939 [46]. From 1964 to 1966, Taylor [47,48,49] established the "leaky dielectric model" for electrospinning technology, which laid a theoretical foundation for the "Taylor cone." In 1966, Simons [50] invented a process for printing nonwoven fabrics using electrospinning technology. In 1971, Baumgarten [51] prepared acrylic fibers with DMF as solvent by electrospinning. In 1978, Annis et al. [52] published work examining electrospun polyurethane mats for use as vascular pros thesis. In 1981, Larrondo and St. John Manley [53,54,55] carried out electrospinning of polyethylene and polypropylene fibers from the melt. In 1985, Fisher et al. [56] studied electrospinning applications in arterial repair materials. In 1996, Reneker and Chun [57] successfully prepared more than 20 kinds of polymer nanofibers by electrospinning technology. In 2009, Jirsak et al. [58] invented a needleless electrospinning technology, and then, the Czech company Elmarco produced the world's first industrial electrospinning machine, Nanospider.In the next decade or so, electrospinning technology was not only widely used in the biomedical field [59,60,61], but also widely used in energy [62,63,64], catalysis [65,66,67] and other fields because of its simple process and wide applicability. In addition, electrospinning can also be used to prepare self-assembled nanocomposites [68,69,70,71,72]. The number of publications and cited frequency of electrospinning increased year by year, as shown in Fig. 1. Figure 2 shows the number of publications on electrospinning in various countries. It can be seen that China published the most, followed by the USA and South Korea.Figure 1📷Number of publications and times cited on electrospinning. All the data used are from Web of Science. The functions we used are analyze results and create citation reportFull size imageFigure 2📷Number of publications on electrospinning in various countries. All the data used are from Web of Science. The functions we used are analyze results and create citation reportFull size imageProcess The basic principle of electrospinning is that solution, suspension or melt is sprayed in a strong electric field to form continuous fibers. The basic electrospinning device consists of three parts (a) a high voltage power supply (b) a spinneret (c) a collector. Figure 3 shows the basic device of electrospinning. In the case of solution electrospinning, first, because of the surface tension of the solution, droplets are formed on the spinneret with induced charge on the surface [73]. When the electrostatic force is equivalent to the surface tension of the solution, the droplet changes from hemispheric shape to cone shape, which is called Taylor cone [49]. When the electrostatic force is greater than the surface tension, the solution can overcome the surface tension and form jets. In the process of reaching the collection device, the electrostatic force makes the jets stretched and the solvent evaporated, leaving only solid fibers. The collection device can collect the solid fibers with complex network structure [74]. The same is true for melt and suspension electrospinning.Figure 3📷