Does examining the "history of a science" shed light on "future directions of that science"?
Dennis
Dennis Mazur
This question may never be answered but I would tend to agree. One should recall Newton's famous quip: "If I have seen further it is only by standing on the shoulders of giants," which means that one can discover truth by building on previous discoveries. Few inventions come about ab ovo: and so, the sundry trajectories of science ought to give pointers to what may come next (which is what the better science fiction writers are good at sensing and, of course, dramatizing). Ironically, it seems Newton's words were actually first spoken by Bernard of Chartres, a 12th century French scholar.
Yes, science expresses repeating phenomenons. For example in archaeology is visible process in 19th and 20th century, when people in science return to old questions. In this sense history of archaeology offers almost the same question like in the past, but differently solved.
This question may never be answered but I would tend to agree. One should recall Newton's famous quip: "If I have seen further it is only by standing on the shoulders of giants," which means that one can discover truth by building on previous discoveries. Few inventions come about ab ovo: and so, the sundry trajectories of science ought to give pointers to what may come next (which is what the better science fiction writers are good at sensing and, of course, dramatizing). Ironically, it seems Newton's words were actually first spoken by Bernard of Chartres, a 12th century French scholar.
in Foucault's term, the archaeology of ideas and thinking is imperative in understanding its legitimacy. Many sciences include a range of beliefs and distracting and misleading thought structures that are continued indefinitely. What is accepted may have been done for ideological or cultural reasons and not therefore stand up to intensive scrutiny of its origins and architecture.
Yes and no. Studying history is always helpful to understand how things develop and why. This is valid for science, too. Yet there is no determinism. The future is open.
I suggest that the validity of a number of sciences is questionable, in part at least. Delving into the history of sciences involves the study of the origins of their ideas, taking apart the theories that represent their intellectual building blocks. A way of looking, science or not, if it professes an absolute understanding is merely exercising dogma and requires scrutiny.
I admit this applies most effectively to say psychology, etc, but can and should be employed elsewhere. I have looked for example at Pre-Socratic philosophy, often considered the basis of much modern science, and found it has many cracks. Aristotle's notion-again someone considered the initiator of modern sciences-of public and private as a rule within politics has been assumed as correct when it was merely or mainly focused on Athens not other Greek societies. While it can be said that these two examples have nothing to do with sciences such as physics, etc, behind every major idea are many others that too are extrapolations from dubious insights or limited insights.
Where future directions are then concerned, sciences can if this method is properly applied, move in different, unexpected directions.
Yes and no, depending on the questions you ask, the cultural demographic, and how wide or narrow you define your scope. For example, you could ask this questions w/in the discipline itself (say astrophysics), or your could ask the question linked to a society (say UK, France, or USA). In scenario 1, the future of "a" physical science cannot be "predicted" because undiscovered elements causes shifts in the very direction of that science. In scenario 2, cultures, societies, may not even pursue certain sciences due to many factors such as lack of resources, or culture/religious beliefs.
In response to your question: Does examining the "history of a science" shed light on "future directions of that science"?, I am teaching a Islamic Sciecne, and from the work and scholarship of many hisorians in the field, I would like to recommend several wroks directed into this field and migh shed light into your question.
Saliba, George, Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2007.
Donald R. Hill, Islamic Science and Engineering, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1993.
Muzzafar Iqbal, Science and Islam, Westport. Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007.
Bucaille, Maurice. The Bible, the Qur'an and science (La Bible, le Coran et la science) the Holy scriptures examined in the light of modern knowledge; translated from the French by Alastair D. Pannell and the author. Bible, le Coran et la science. Al-Ain : Al-Ain Modern Printing Press, 1970. Bucaille, Maurice. The Qur'an and modern science. Dubai: Dar al Berr Society, 1995. ¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬Freely, John. Aladdin's lamp: how Greek science came to Europe through the Islamic world. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009. Gulshanī, Mahdī. The Holy Quran and the sciences of nature. Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications, IGCs, Binghamton University, 1999. Gutas, Dimitri, Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Greco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early Abbasid Society (2nd-4th/8th-10th centuries), Routledge, London. Paperback, 1998. Harun Yahya. Atlas of creation; [translated by Carl Nino Rossini, Ronald Evans; edited by Timothy Mossman]. Okmeydani, Istanbul: Global Publishing, 2007. Hoodbhoy, Pervez. Islam and science: religious orthodoxy and the battle for rationality; foreword by Mohammed Abdus Salam. London; Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Zed Books, 1991. Hournai, Albert. A History of the Arab Peoples. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvar University Press, 2002. Husaini, S. Waqar Ahmed. Islamic environmental systems engineering: a systems study of environmental engineering and the law, politics, education, economics, and sociology of science and culture of Islam. London: Macmillan; Indianapolis, Ind., USA: American Trust Publications, 1980. Husaini, S. Waqar Ahmed. Islamic sciences: an introduction to Islamic ethics, law, education, politics, economics, sociology, and sytems [i.e.systems] planning. New Delhi: Goodword Books, 2002. Ira Lapidus. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Jayyusi, Salma K. Ed. The Legacy of Muslim Spain Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2005, 2 volumes. John Cooper, Ronald L. Nettler and Muhammad Mahmoud. Islam and modernity: Muslim intellectuals respond. London: I. B. Tauris, 2000. King, David A. The call of the muezzin: studies in astronomical timekeeping and instrumentation in medieval Islamic civilization. [electronic resource]. Boston: Brill, 2004. King, David A.. In synchronicity with the Heavens: studies in astronomical timekeeping and instrumentation in medieval Islamic civilization.[electronic resource], volume I. Boston: Brill, 2004. Klaus Gottstein (ed.).Islamic cultural identity and scientific—technological development. Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1986. Majid Khadduri. Political trends in the Arab world: the role of ideas and ideals in politics. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1970. Marzoqi, Omar. Islamic science and technology. Dubai: Dubai Men's College, Higher Colleges of Technology, 1993. Masood, Ehsan. Scienče & I̊slam: a history. London: Icon, 2009. Michael Hamilton Morgan. Lost history : the enduring legacy of Muslim scientists, thinkers, and artists; [foreword by King Abdullah II of Jordan]. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2007. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein The history and philosophy of Islamic science. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1999. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Islamic science: an illustrated study. World of Islam Festival Pub. Co., 1976. Osman Bakar, Classification of knowledge in Islam : a study in Islamic philosophies of science /; foreword by Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Kuala Lumpur : International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilisation, 2006. Osman Bakar. Tawhid and science: essays on the history and philosophy of Islamic science. Kuala Lumpur, Penang: Secretariat for Islamic Philosophy and Science, 1991. Osman Bakar. The history and philosophy of Islamic science. Cambridge, London: Islamic Texts Society, 1999. Qadir, C. A. (Chaudhry Abdul, 1909-.) Philosophy and science in the Islamic world. London; New York: Routledge, 1990. Rashed, Roshdi and Regis Morelon (ed), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, 3 vols, Routledge, London, 1996 (Translated into French and Arabic for those who have access to those two languages The Arabic version is very affordable and is published by Markaz Dirasat al-Wahda al-Arabiya in Beirut). Saliba, Georgre , A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, NYU Press, NY. Paperback, 1994. Saliba, Georgre , Rethinking the Roots of Modern Science: Arabic Manuscripts in European Libraries, occasional paper, Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown, Washington D.C., 1999. Saliba, Georgre , The Origins and Development of Arabic Scientific Thought, [Arabic], Balamand University, 1999. Sami Zubaida. Islam, the people and the state: political ideas and movements in the Middle East. London; New York: I. B. Tauris, 2009. Sardar, Ziauddin. Explorations in Islamic science. London; New York: Mansell, 1989. Yahya, Hârun. For men of understanding: the signs in the heavens and the Earth. London: Ta-Ha Pub., 2003. Zezgin, Fuat. Science and tehcnology in Islam. Frankfurt: Institute für Geschichte der Arabisch, 2011. 8 volums. Ziauddin Sardar (ed). An Early crescent: the future of knowledge and the environment in Islam. London; New York: Mansell, 1989.
[Building on what Stanley W and Thomas S have said above^]: There are indeed many examples where completely unexpected developments and phenomena arise - almost "out of the blue", we might say. The ancient Greeks and the mediaeval Arabs had absolutely no idea that mathematical calculus would be devised/discovered in later centuries - with its rich range of applications. Or that a new physics would emerge, aided by electronics and sophisticated computers - revealing unimaginable secrets regarding nuclear and atomic structure. And of course biology, with its miraculous advances in surgery and genetic engineering. We could even cite the way in which modern-day chemistry has unfolded - totally eclipsing its primitive beginnings in alchemy. And astronomy - enabled of course by advanced technology.
Within the context just of Western Civilization - [since about 1300 AD, say] - it is possible, however, to trace a reasonably well defined "trajectory" of scientific and mathematical development or evolution.
I too think it depends on who's doing the history. Most academic historians stay away from such questions, since pursuing them can muddy the waters if one wants to understand how people of other eras or cultures understood the phenomena, practices, beliefs, metrics, etc. around them. But there are plenty of scientists, physicians and mathematicians who do responsible, interesting work in trying to understand what their predecessors were seeing or otherwise experiencing in pursuing their objectives.
I often write and lecture for highly intelligent, non-historian audiences. It helps bring me out of my narrowly historical concerns, if only because I have to explain why my usual questions might matter to the audience's world view. (Why would a medical fellow care about Aristotle's physics?) But conversely, history is a great tool for showing overconfident scientists, physicians and mathematicians that they have made some untenable assumptions about the certainty of their own theories. (Most have heard of Kuhn, although fewer and fewer have actually read anything he wrote.) As others have said, one cannot predict the future - and those whose job is to predict as well as explain sometimes need to be reminded of how fundamentally theory-laden their views really are -- even when those views are not false.
Once the structure and basic biochemical function of DNA molecules were understood, predictions where made, some of which have been been accurate.
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