What is the volume of water and water capacity in Iran?

Water resources have an important role in the agriculture sector in Iran. Considerable reductions are expected in water and renewable water resources in Iran (10, 11). It is predicted that by 2050 Iran’s water demand will increase by about 40 BCM as a consequence of CC (12). This situation has emerged as a concern for food security for the growing population of the country, especially due to irrigated agriculture which dominates the major system of agriculture in Iran. Therefore, it is imperative for Iran to tackle this challenge by taking proactive and concrete measures. Iran has taken various legal, policy, and management initiatives to address the challenges of CC and its impact on food security. The main stakeholders and actors relevant to this challenge are: the Ministry of Agriculture-Jahad, Ministry of Power, Environmental Organization, Weather Organization, Ministry of Interior, National Universities, and various Research Institutes. Many countries have taken actions and adopted CC related policies and adaptation programs such as mainstreaming CC concerns into water and agricultural policies and pursuing cross-sectorial coordination efforts. Key elements of Pakistan’s climate policy, identifying both its strengths and weaknesses were investigated. The analysis offered essential insights for subnational governments in Pakistan, which are responsible for executing CC policies and related measures (13). The importance of bottom-up governance, where local actors and stakeholders play a crucial role in adaptive governance particularly in the agricultural sector was emphasized (14). The socio-economic impacts of CC are especially severe in developing regions like Africa and South Asia, including Pakistan (15) . Despite such global efforts and actions, review of literature indicates that most CC adaptation studies have focused on its scenarios; observed or anticipated incidences; and ecological, and socio-economic vulnerabilities. Only limited studies have been systematically dealt with governance and proper organizational arrangements for implementing the adaptation policies (13, 14, 16). Four main challenges stand out in climate adaptation policy-making: 1) enhancing horizontal integration of adaptation policies across various sectors, 2) strengthening vertical integration across different jurisdictional levels, 3) effectively incorporating knowledge, and 4) actively involving non-state stakeholders (17). Most approaches to these challenges rely on soft, voluntary forms of coordination and steering, which frequently address multiple challenges simultaneously. Typically, national adaptation strategies serve as the cornerstone of adaptation governance, around which other governance methods are structured (17). However, on the heels of the Paris Agreement and the proper recognition of adaptation measures as a core strategy to deal with CC, different countries are taking concrete actions to adapt to CC. For instance, China, in line with better governance related to the adaptation to CC, has taken different actions including improvements in laws and regulations (18). Iran has also initiated steps towards adaptation governance by enacting various laws, establishing policy documents, and incorporating institutional arrangements for effective adaptation to CC. There is limited literature on climate adaptation policy development and implementation at the subnational level in the agricultural sector. Climate adaptation policy and management in agriculture are generally discussed at the national level, and subnational climate adaptation policies rarely address agriculture (16). Critical aspects of climate policy in Pakistan to explore the strengths and shortcomings of the policy were studied (13).The legislation and policy development on water and agriculture management policies and laws in response to adaptation to CC management in Iran, as far as our research is concerned, has not been a much analyzed issue, especially in academic circles (12–16). That is why this subject was selected for evaluation in this paper. The present study was conducted to explore and assess how and to what extent the legal and policy frameworks of Iran on water and agriculture management contributes to adaptation to CC. On the other hand, the objective is also to find out to what extent mitigation and adaptation to CC concerns are mainstreamed into the relevant water and agriculture laws and policies of Iran. In other words, what requirements and policies have been set for managers and planners by this legislation and policy responses and how the opportunities and capacities for them could be used for better water governance in agriculture and to achieve food security under CC conditions in Iran by the main actors. The findings will be beneficial for policymakers and climate experts in revising policy documents. This study is significant as it identifies gaps and shortfalls in laws and policies related to CC adaptation, providing a solid backing for effective implementation.CONCLUSION Iran is significantly impacted by CC and is a waterstressed country. While the government acknowledges CC as a major threat to agriculture, laws and policies often do not explicitly address adaptation. Contributing factors include lack of scientific data, weak interdepartmental coordination, financial constraints, and inadequate stakeholder involvement. Local institutions generally lack capacity and awareness, and stakeholder feedback is not well incorporated. Current laws and policies lack clear implementation strategies and are not supported by thorough research. Their effectiveness is uncertain as objectives are misaligned with the country's infrastructure and resources (managerial, technical, administrative, etc.). It appears that they hold sound directions but their implementation will remain a challenge. Despite growing awareness of CC impacts on agriculture, there is a lack of concrete mitigation and adaptation plans. Recent efforts toward more integrated laws show some progress, but adaptation remains low on the agenda. Resistance from some sectors who underestimate the issue’s importance slows progress, indicating a need for more mainstreaming efforts. Key deficiencies include inconsistencies in conservation, mitigation efforts, and early warning systems. There is a critical need for better policy integration and the use of simulation models to assess impacts on water resources and the environment, in line with UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Results of this research showed that adaptation to CC still is not defined as urgent in the local and national levels and the implementation of adaptation measures is not supported by the national legislation. For instance, it has seen in all of the relevant developed laws and policies documents that there are no explicitly implementation indications towards adaptation to CC. However, the government attitude towards addressing CC is changing but still the pace for incorporating effective laws and policy documents on the subject is low because some parties still do not believe to this fact and resist to it or not sufficiently realized the importance of the issue. Therefore, more mainstreaming activities are needed to be done in future. The research concludes that there are high deficiencies and gaps on legislation on the CC management in agriculture of Iran from the water and production management aspects in agriculture sector. For instance, it lacks consistency and conservation of agricultural production; CC mitigation; early warning and preparedness on drought risks and CC; and development of research studies on adaptation to CC. Recommendations include involving experts and stakeholders in policy development, engaging local media and universities, incorporating CC education into school curricula, and reforming institutions to improve adaptation policies.