What is dark matter? And how was the structure of the world formed?

Dark matter is still a subject of ongoing debate. It has been considered in the theoretical description of compact objects such as neutron stars with cores of very dense matter. Various candidates for dark matter have been proposed in the scientific literature. Among them, the sexaquark has been identified as a potential boson particle that can form in the neutron star material based on its mass properties. We investigate the viability of the sexquark as a candidate for dark matter, especially under certain density conditions. Addressing the challenges associated with the formation of a boson particle in a highly dense medium without compromising the stability of the neutron star. A direct linear mass change for the sexaquark in the hadronic equation of state. It was observed that including the sexaquark as a dark matter candidate in the hadronic matter equation of state, although it has a repulsive interaction with the baryonic matter, softens the equation of state. We assume that the interaction strength of dark matter with baryonic matter increases linearly with the baryon density. We observe that the increase in the effective mass of the Sexaquark as a result of the increase in its vacuum mass causes the equation of state to become stiffer compared to the constant mass state. We determine lower and upper mass limits for this bosonic dark matter based on observational limits for neutron stars in the DD2Y-T model, when a quark-matter phase-to-phase transition is used. Dark matter, neutron star, equation of state, relativistic mean field, phase transition, sexquark.

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Stam Nicolis added a reply

The particle content of dark matter is, for the moment, unknown.

Sexaquarks, as the name indicates, are composite particles made of six quarks-quarks are among the constituents of ``ordinary'' matter. The reason they don't have anything to do with dark matter is that dark matter is made of other kinds of particles. If it were made of known particles, quarks or leptons, it would have had known interactions with ordinary matter, beyond just gravitational interaction (which is how its presence has been established). It doesn't, however, have strong or electromagnetic interactions with ordinary matter (whether it has, only, weak interactions is, still, a matter of study), so it doesn't carry color or electric charge.

How the ``structure of the world was formed'' is known, after the era in which gravity decoupled from the other interactions, in general terms, though many details are, still, not clear. Cf. for instance: https://workshops.ift.uam-csic.es/uploads/charla/275/Zavala_SM_LCDM.pdf

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Dark Matter

Neutron Star

Density

Gravitation

Electromagnetic Phenomena

Alessandro Rizzo added a reply

1 day ago

Hello,

Dark matter is a substance that makes up about 27% of the universe. We can't see or detect it directly, but we know it's there because of its gravitational effects on visible matter. Scientists think that dark matter played a crucial role in forming galaxies and large-scale structures in the cosmos. It acts like an invisible scaffold, helping to clump regular matter together. Well We're still not sure what dark matter is made of. Some ideas include exotic particles like WIMPs or the sexaquark you mentioned. Researchers are trying to detect dark matter particles in labs and looking for indirect signs of it in space.As for how the world's structure formed, dark matter was undoubtely the key. After the Big Bang, it helped gravity pull matter together to form the first stars and galaxies. Over time, this process built up the complex web of galaxy clusters and filaments we see today. So Dark matter remains one of the biggest puzzles in physics. We're working on understanding it better, but for now, its true nature is still a mystery.

Javad Fardaei added a reply

3 days ago

Dear Abbas these two articles might answer your questions.

https://www.academia.edu/38670214/The_Theory_of_Everything

Article The Mythos of Gravity Or (Newtonian and Einsteinian Gravity is a Myth)

… Read more

Abbas Kashani added a reply

Dear Javad Fardai

From the United States of America

Thank you very much for your kindness, I was very impressed with your articles. Thank you Abbas

… Read more

Alessandro Rizzo added a reply

Hello,

Dark matter is a substance that makes up about 27% of the universe. We can't see or detect it directly, but we know it's there because of its gravitational effects on visible matter. Scientists think that dark matter played a crucial role in forming galaxies and large-scale structures in the cosmos. It acts like an invisible scaffold, helping to clump regular matter together. Well We're still not sure what dark matter is made of. Some ideas include exotic particles like WIMPs or the sexaquark you mentioned. Researchers are trying to detect dark matter particles in labs and looking for indirect signs of it in space.As for how the world's structure formed, dark matter was undoubtely the key. After the Big Bang, it helped gravity pull matter together to form the first stars and galaxies. Over time, this process built up the complex web of galaxy clusters and filaments we see today. So Dark matter remains one of the biggest puzzles in physics. We're working on understanding it better, but for now, its true nature is still a mystery.

Gurcharn Singh Sandhu added a reply

July 24

DARK MATTER

It is fundamentally wrong to assume the existence of fictitious Dark Matter for explaining the pattern of circular velocities of stellar objects in galactic spiral arms.

Let a stellar object of mass m, with circular velocity Vc and radial velocity Vr, be located within a spiral arm at a radial distance R from the galactic centre. Let Mr be the total baryonic mass within a sphere of radius R. Assuming approximate validity of the shell theorem for the galactic disc region and also assuming that the stellar object under consideration is moving solely under the influence of central force field of the galaxy, radial acceleration dVr/dt of the object will be given by,

dVr/dt = -GMr/R2 + Vc2/R

While justifying the necessity of dark matter, the radial acceleration dVr/dt is assumed to be zero and all trajectories of stellar objects are implicitly assumed to be circular, which is wrong. The circular or tangential velocities of stellar bodies are not directly produced by the radial acceleration field of the galaxy but depend on the initial angular momentum of the accreting matter with respect to the gravitating body. Conservation of angular momentum will ensure increase in circular velocity of stellar bodies as their distance from central gravitating body keeps decreasing. Let L be the angular momentum of the stellar object of mass m while entering the outer fringes of the galaxy which will remain constant through out its motion within the central gravitational field. The circular velocity Vc of this object, at any distance from the center of the gravitating mass Mr, will be given by Vc = L/(m.R) and this does not depend upon mass Mr. That is, the increase in circular velocity Vc with decreasing R does not depend on the strength of central gravitation field or magnitude of Mr, but is solely governed by the conservation of angular momentum. Hence it is fundamentally wrong to assume the existence of fictitious Dark Matter for explaining the pattern of circular velocities of stellar objects in spiral arms.

There are other reasons for explaining the flatness of rotation curve but definitely not the assumption of higher mass Mr or Dark Matter. In reality stellar objects in spiral arms do not move solely under the influence of central gravitation field of the galaxy, their motion is also influenced by the local gravitation fields within the spiral arms. There are localized gravitating bodies existing within the spiral arms, which produce their own gravitation field in addition to the gravitational field of the central gravitating body.

Article Ionic Gravitation and Ionized Solid Iron Stellar Bodies

Stam Nicolis added a reply

July 25

Asking the same question multiple times doesn't make much sense. It suffices to ask it once. Dark matter doesn't have anything to do with neutron stars, it has to do with the rotation curves of galaxies.

Sexaquarks aren't singled out among hadrons for having repulsive interactions with baryonic matter, that statement is wrong. Nor does their contribution ``soften the equation of state'' of baryonic matter.

Dark matter, once more, has been found to interact with ordinary mattr, baryonic or not, only gravitationally and it's not known whether it interacts with it through the weak interaction.

The mass limit of dark matter as a function of the energy budget of the Universe is known; its particle content isn't, yet, known.

Abdul Malek added a reply

July 25

"Dark Matter" is a crude fiction arising in spite of the scientific fact that Newton's theory of (one-sided) universal gravitational attraction is patently false, because it does not take into account the reality of the (gravitation opposing) centrifugal force and vis viva of Leibniz.

A (suggested) new quantitative form of the gravitational potential taking into account of the role of the opposing forces, in the dynamics of the celestial formations, eliminate the need for fictitious Dark/black cosmic monster of Fairy Tale cosmology of official "science"!

KEPLER -NEWTON -LEIBNIZ -HEGEL Portentous and Conflicting Legacies in Theoretical Physics, Cosmology and in Ruling https://www.rajpub.com/index.php/jap/article/view/9106

" THE CONCEPTUAL DEFECT OF THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION OR ‘FREE FALL’: A DIALECTICAL REASSESSMENT OF KEPLER’S LAWS":

Article THE CONCEPTUAL DEFECT OF THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION OR...

Moreover, the narrative of the "Big Bang" created universe, where the galaxies are supposedly formed by universal condensation of matter is false! On the contrary, new matter created by existing galaxies are ejected and/or dissipated, which then give rise to the formation of new galaxies in an infinite, eternal and ever-changing universe. Ambartsumian, Arp and the Breeding Galaxies: http://redshift.vif.com/JournalFiles/V12NO2PDF/V12N2MAL.pdf

Kanat Abildinov added a reply

19 hours ago

There isn't any dark matter, in the Universe. There is uniform acceleration of inertial motion defined by masses in the Universe.

There are four kinds of interactions in our Universe, their names: electromagnetic, strong, weak and gravitational. In the standard model electromagnetic and weak forces was combined and represented as unified electroweak force in the Grand Unification of three called interactions except for gravitational. The main problem of Physics is a building of Unified Theory of Everything, so-called Super Unification theory, or the theory of matter (field). It is now known that the classic mechanics and the quantum field theory, which is consistent with quantum mechanics and special relativity, cannot to unite four known interactions by single unified one. It was main aim in the 30 last years in the Einstein’s life. At present we have a crisis in particle physics [1] and problems in high energy astrophysics [2], such as unexplained energy and sources of ultrarelativistic charged particles (ultra-high-energy cosmic rays) [2, 3], the problems of the “dark matter” [4] and “dark energy” [4, 5] in the Universe, and the problem in the Cosmology, such as acceleration models of the Universe [4] which cannot be admitted by the philosophic principles, and by this cause cannot be understood by most of peoples. Trying to resolve some of these problems, we can consider new theory based on philosophic principles and on the geometric one. It is the Unified Theory of Interactions (UTI).

II. Philosophy of the Unified theory of Interactions The matter is continuous and infrangible, because nothing exists except of matter. The matter cannot to be split by absolutely different kind of objects, for example by means of “absolute emptiness”. The matter has two kinds: tenuous – field (ether, material space, physical vacuum) and compacted – energy substance. And the matter has its unified subpart. The material objects exist in the time because they are changeable and can detect other material objects and can affect them. In chime with this we have a following. III. Basic principles There are two main principles in the base of “Unified theory of interactions”: 1) The “Principle of Absolute Transitions”: The absolute transitions, is momentary transitions between absolutely differentiated conditions of the matter, and they are do not exist in the time. Or, by other words: The transitions between two physical values, that realize only stepwise (in a trice), without intermediate values, do not exist in the nature.

Nainan Varghese added a reply

1 hour ago

Dark matter, Galaxy rotation problem:

An apparent galactic rotation anomaly necessitated additional matter in the galaxy to sustain the observed spin speed. Since no additional matter could be observed, imaginary dark matter was invented to provide a suitable explanation for galactic rotation anomaly. As dark matter is not defined, it is assigned different meanings in different theories.

Galactic rotation anomaly is an apparent phenomenon caused by assigning reality to apparent planetary orbital paths around central bodies. Refer: http://viXra.org/abs/1403.0972

EXISTENCE AND REALITY

By Nainan K. Varghese, [email protected]

http://www.matterdoc.info

Entire universe (and everything in it, including us) exists. Its existence is not one of many conjectural activities of human mind. Irrespective of presence of human race, the universe existed, is existing and will continue to exist in more or less in similar state. Generally considering, there are two levels of existence. First level of existence is that which does not depend on others for existence. Universe as a whole and its material constituents form this group. These are real entities. They are there because of their objectivity. Second level of existence is that which depends on others for existence. These are functional entities. Functional entities are born out of real entities and their relations. They are created by intellect of real entities for definite purposes.

Real entities have objective reality and positive existence in space, which are provided by their substance (stuff from which they are made of). Each real entity exists independently due to its substance. Therefore, substance is essential for existence of all real entities in space. Space is an imaginary container, envisaged by rational beings, whenever they think of real entities. Space extends to infinity means; however far we go, we can find real entities there and beyond. Space may be partitioned for our convenience into different spatial systems. Currently, most preferred spatial system is three-dimensional.

Because of their objectiveness, real entities have forms and structures. They can deform, contract or expand. When they are in direct contact, they are able to act on each other and be acted upon by other real entities. Examples of real entities are: matter, universal medium, photons, primary and secondary 3D matter-particles, sub-atomic particles, atoms, etc. Real entities have volumetric existence in three-dimensional spatial system. In 3D spatial system, we use three mutually perpendicular planes through origin as references to measure distances to an object and indicate its exact position in space with respect to the origin. Unless we are able to provide more planes through the origin, which are perpendicular to original three mutually perpendicular planes, we cannot have higher-dimensional spatial systems and entities.

Functional entities are invented by rational beings for specific purposes. They have neither objective reality nor positive existence in space. They are without substance and exist only in the minds of rational beings and in mathematical analyses. However, they fulfill all functions assigned to them. Many of them perform like real entities, even without having substance, by grace of their creators. It is a regular feature that a functional entity, created for a specific purpose, if suitable, is often used for unrelated purposes elsewhere. That is to say that with sufficient skill and enterprise, a functional entity can be established to perform like a real entity. Deliberate attempt by a mathematician can create required relations between functional entities and between functional and real entities. It is convenient and easier to blame cause of an action on a functional entity, when no real cause is obvious. This tendency caused grave damage to logical reasoning in the development of physics.

As they do not have substance, functional entities have no forms or structures. They cannot deform, contract, expand, append with or detach from other entities. Very existence of functional entities depends on rational-thinking beings. Without mental exercise from rational beings, all functional entities will cease to exist. Examples of functional entities are: life, mind, intellect, energy, mass, time, force, field, information, action, motion, etc. Changes in certain (undefined) fields are aptly named as ‘virtual particles’, yet they are considered, in mathematical analyses, to act like real entities in many ways.

We are 3D beings, living and operating in three-dimensional spatial system. We sense and observe real entities through our sense organs and various instruments. Functional entities are scrutinized by our intellect. Our sense organs and instruments are devised to sense and observe only real entities, which exist in 3D spatial system. Therefore, our sense organs and instruments are not perfect to observe all that is going on in the universe. If measurement of a real entity in one or two spatial dimensions is too small to sense or observe by us or our instruments, we are bound to regards them as non-existent. By definition, a point, a line or a plane cannot exist in 3D spatial system. Yet for all practical purposes they are treated as real entities. This is not due to unreality of the objects but due to inability of our senses and instruments to observe and measure them. Such objects exist in 2D or 1D spatial systems. Therefore, it is possible for real entities to exist in lower spatial dimensional systems and simultaneously have volumetric existence in three-dimensional spatial system.

In the current scenario, real entities in lower-dimensional spatial systems will forever remain undetectable by us and our instruments. We may infer their existence and nature from observable actions on/by 3D bodies or devise better instruments. All 1D, 2D and 3D entities have their volumetric existences in 3D spatial system but the differences are due to our inability to recognize entities in lower-dimensional spatial systems. As whole of universe and every real object in it are formed by substance, we should accept presence of substance (particles) in all 1D, 2D and 3D spatial systems (individually or in combinations) for betterment of science.

It is evident that many of the entities, which we usually consider functional (imaginary or virtual), are in fact real entities and many of the entities, which we normally consider real, are in fact functional (imaginary or virtual) entities. In order to differentiate them, it is necessary to classify them according to their substance-content rather than our ability to sense and observe them. All those, which have substance, are real entities and those, which have no substance, are functional entities.

We observe diverse objects in universe with different characteristic properties. There cannot be too many kinds of substances to provide widely diverse properties to different types of real entities. Ideally, there can be a single type of fundamental substance that forms all real entities. Differences in relative arrangements of substance-particles in the structures of different objects endow them with different properties. Therefore, fundamental substance can have no inherent property, except its ability of positive existence (in volumetric space).

We may call the fundamental substance by any name. However, in material world, existence of matter is nearest to absolute truth. Hence it is reasonable that the fundamental substance that provides objective reality and positive existence in space to all real entities may be called ‘matter’. Any entity that is made of matter is real, regardless of our ability to sense and observe it. And any entity that is not made of matter is functional, despite of its uses in explanations of various phenomena. As a product (effect or action) cannot define its producer (cause or mechanism), matter (being the most fundamental entity and cause of everything else) is beyond definition or description. It can only be inferred and described by intellect (a functional entity) of rational 3D beings’ minds.

Considering matter as the most fundamental substance and by step-by-step reasoning, we can see that unstructured matter (by its inherent ability to exist) fragments into minute quanta of matter, which endeavor to limit their existences into single-dimensional spatial system. These actions also help quanta of matter to arrange themselves into structural formations in two-dimensional spatial systems and causes all dynamic actions in nature. Latticework formations by quanta of matter in all possible planes, together, form an aether-like all-encompassing ‘universal medium’ that fills entire space outside basic 3D matter-particles. Universal medium has all desirable properties of aethers, proposed in various theories, and none of their objectionable properties.

Universal medium is simultaneously particulate & continuous, anisotropic & homogeneous and inherently under compression. As it is in direct contact with all basic 3D matter-particles, universal medium avoids ‘action at a distance through empty space’. Steady nature of universal medium offers us an absolute reference frame. Its self-stabilizing property produces all kinds of ‘natural forces’ and causes all physical actions in universe, including; creation, development, sustenance and eventual destruction of all basic 3D matter-particles (photons), fundamental particles, superior 3D matter-particles, sub-atomic particles, atoms, unions of atoms and macro bodies (including rational beings). Universal medium, together with basic 3D matter-particles, form a single block of matter of uniform matter-density that fills entire universe, without scope for vacuum or emptiness. Therefore, although real, matter, itself cannot expand or contract to vary its matter-density. Universal medium helps to sustain steady state of universe with more or less even distribution of macro bodies throughout its expanse, which is unlimited.

Reference: ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’, published by the author.