What are the solutions to water scarcity in rural and agricultural areas? Can humans take practical action to prevent water scarcity and soil erosion in arid, semi-arid, and foothill areas?

Arid and semi-arid areas are defined as areas where rainfall is less than the amount of water lost through evaporation and transpiration. Semi-arid areas, where annual rainfall is between 250 mm and 500 mm, have slightly more water than arid areas, but water management is critical for agricultural production (FAO, 2017). On the other hand, arid areas receive less than 250 mm of annual rainfall and are severely water-constrained (UNEP, 2021). Globally, arid and semi-arid areas cover approximately 41% of the Earth’s surface and are home to more than 2 billion people. Agriculture in such areas faces significant challenges due to natural water scarcity and erratic rainfall. Water scarcity has encouraged the development of innovative irrigation strategies to increase agricultural productivity (WWAP, 2019). Water management in arid and semi-arid regions is crucial not only for the sustainability of agricultural production, but also for maintaining ecosystems and improving the quality of life of local communities. Effective management of water resources in these regions increases agricultural productivity and enables more efficient water use (Kang et al., 2017). Climate change has increased pressure on water resources in arid and semi-arid regions. Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns and extreme weather events are negatively affecting the availability and quality of water resources. Therefore, developing resilient and sustainable irrigation strategies that can adapt to climate change is crucial for the sustainability of agriculture in these regions (IPCC, 2022). Climate change and global warming pose serious threats to agriculture, water resources and the environment, especially in the Mediterranean climate region. The region is facing rising temperatures and decreasing rainfall, while the frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods and heavy rainfall is increasing. The Mediterranean Basin holds only 1.2% of the world's renewable water resources, and freshwater resources are expected to decrease by 25-50% by 2050. Turkey is one of the most affected countries, with declining water resources and significant losses in agricultural land, posing serious challenges to water supply and rural development. Rising temperatures have negatively affected traditional agricultural practices. For example, the planting dates of winter crops such as wheat and barley have changed, leading to reduced yields due to water stress. In addition, water scarcity has led to reduced soil moisture, making it more difficult to grow crops during critical periods. In Turkey, a major part of the water used in agriculture is supplied from groundwater, which is rapidly depleting, causing a decrease in groundwater levels and increasing energy costs for extraction. To overcome these challenges, sustainable soil and water management practices need to be implemented. Efficient irrigation techniques, water-saving methods and solutions to increase agricultural productivity are crucial to address these issues. Keywords: Global warming, climate change, agricultural production, arid climate, sustainable soil and water management. Effective water management in arid and semi-arid regions requires the development of resilient strategies that integrate agricultural production systems with irrigation. technologies and cope with future threats such as climate change and water resource depletion (Kinzelbach et al., 2010). In this context, the formulation of water management policies at regional and national levels plays an important role in the long-term preservation of water and sustainable agriculture. Widespread adoption of modern irrigation methods, smart farming technologies, and water harvesting systems could be key solutions to the future water scarcity challenges facing the agricultural sector in these regions. Another important aspect of water management in this Areas, balancing crop production and water conservation by providing the right amount of water at the right time (Wang et al., 2021). Accurately determining the water requirement of plants and carefully planning the duration and amount of irrigation are key strategies that increase water use efficiency (Gu et al., 2020). These strategies also minimize water losses and allow water to reach larger agricultural areas. Today, modern irrigation techniques and water management practices enable more efficient use of water resources and minimize water losses. Innovative methods such as drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and smart irrigation systems increase water use efficiency and reduce water stress in plants. This section discusses various irrigation strategies applicable to arid and semi-arid areas, their advantages and disadvantages, and successful application examples. Challenges of Water Resource Management in Arid and Semi-arid Areas Water management in arid and semi-arid areas faces significant challenges due to a combination of environmental, social, and economic factors. Characterized by low and highly variable rainfall, high evaporation rates, and frequent droughts, these regions are particularly vulnerable to water scarcity. The increasing impacts of climate change will exacerbate these challenges, leading to increased temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and longer drought periods that will further stress limited water resources (Garrido et al., 2010). This creates an urgent need for effective water management strategies to ensure the sustainability of agricultural production and water supply in these regions. One of the most critical issues in water management is the over-extraction of groundwater resources, which is often the primary source of irrigation in arid and semi-arid regions. Over-extraction leads to groundwater depletion, land subsidence, and reduced water quality due to salinization and seawater intrusion in coastal areas (Khorami and Malek Mohammadi, 2021). As groundwater reserves decline, the long-term sustainability of agriculture and other water-dependent activities becomes uncertain. Furthermore, reliance on fossil groundwater – water that has accumulated over thousands of years – makes it impossible to replenish through natural means within human timescales (Wada et al., 2011). This unsustainable water consumption threatens the agricultural economy and food security of these regions. Figure 1 shows the projected impact of current water consumption on future water resources. According to the World Resources Institute (WRI), this scenario represents a “business as usual” future, with global temperatures rising between 2.8 and 4.6°C by 2100, while inequality persists across the globe. In this scenario, countries such as Iran, India and the entire Arabian Peninsula, along with most of North Africa including Algeria, Egypt and Libya, are expected to use at least 80% of their available water resources by 2050. Compounding these environmental issues are social and economic challenges. Rapid population growth, urbanization, and increasing demand for water-intensive crops are putting increasing pressure on scarce water resources (Fader et al., 2016). Conflicts over water use between agriculture, urban needs, and industry are intensifying, leading to competition and inefficiencies in water allocation. This scenario highlights the need for integrated water resources management (IWRM) approaches that consider multiple water uses while prioritizing sustainable practices. Inadequate infrastructure and outdated irrigation techniques also contribute to inefficient water use.Traditional methods such as flood irrigation, which are still widely used in many arid regions, result in high water losses through evaporation and runoff. According to Oweis and Hachum (2006), modernizing irrigation systems – such as using drip or sprinkler irrigation – can significantly reduce water losses and increase water use efficiency. However, the implementation of these technologies is often limited by financial constraints, lack of technical knowledge and inadequate policy support. As a result, water management challenges in arid and semi-arid regions are multifaceted, including environmental degradation, unsustainable water extraction, population pressure and infrastructure constraints. Addressing these challenges requires an integrated approach that combines modern technologies, sustainable practices and supportive policy frameworks to reduce water scarcity and ensure long-term resilience in these vulnerable regions. Strategies Given the limited water resources in these areas, increasing the water holding capacity of the soil plays an important role in improving water efficiency and plant growth (Lal and Stewart, 2013). Water holding capacity varies depending on soil structure, organic matter content, soil texture, and local climatic conditions. Methods used to increase water retention in the soil not only ensure efficient water use but also help plant roots stay moist for longer periods of time in dry conditions (Gupta et al., 2020). One of the most effective ways to improve water holding capacity in soil management is to increase the organic matter content. Organic matter improves soil structure, thereby increasing the soil’s ability to retain water. Soils enriched with organic matter retain water for a long time, making it accessible to plant roots. In addition, organic matter promotes the formation of soil aggregates, which improves water infiltration (Yang et al., 2022). Incorporating compost, green manure, and crop residues into the soil are primary methods for increasing organic matter levels. These practices are key components that support both water management strategies and soil health. Another important soil management strategy is optimizing tillage techniques.Minimum tillage practices help maintain soil structure and allow water to remain in the soil for longer periods. While conventional deep tillage techniques can lead to water loss, minimum tillage strategies help maintain surface moisture in the soil (Lv et al., 2023). In addition, surface cover techniques such as mulching reduce water loss through evaporation by maintaining soil moisture and regulating soil temperature. Mulching helps in the successful implementation of water management strategies by increasing the water holding capacity of the soil (El-Beltagi et al., 2022). Controlling soil salinity is another important soil management strategy that increases water holding capacity. In arid and semi-arid regions, excessive irrigation and poor drainage conditions can lead to salt accumulation in the soil. Soil salinity limits the ability of plant roots to access water, thereby increasing water stress. To prevent salinization, it is essential to establish proper drainage systems and implement controlled irrigation techniques (Singh, 2021). These strategies support more efficient water use in the soil and ensure optimal moisture conditions for plant growth. Furrow irrigation, on the other hand, involves directing water through furrows dug along the field, allowing water to reach the plant root zone more directly. While this method can still result in water losses, it improves water use efficiency by up to 30% compared to flood irrigation (Fahang et al., 2004). Traditional irrigation methods are advantageous due to their low investment cost and ease of implementation. However, they also have disadvantages such as soil salinization, uneven water distribution, and water wastage. • Modern irrigation methods In order to maximize water efficiency and reduce water loss, modern irrigation techniques have been developed. Drip irrigation systems, which deliver water directly to the root zone of plants in the form of droplets, can achieve water use efficiencies of 90–95% (Capra & Scicolone, 2008). This method avoids water waste and reduces water stress in plants. As of 2020, approximately 10% of the agricultural areas worldwide using modern irrigation methods will be irrigated with drip irrigation systems (FAO, 2017). Sprinkler irrigation involves applying water to plant surfaces through pipes and pressurized sprinklers, ensuring uniform distribution over a wider area. It is suitable for a variety of plant species and soil conditions and maintains water use efficiencies between 70 and 85% (Evans & Sadler, 2008). Modern irrigation techniques have been developed to maximize water efficiency and reduce water waste. • Subsurface drip irrigation Subsurface drip irrigation systems involve delivering water directly to the plant root zone through underground pipes. This method prevents water loss through evaporation and allows plants to use water more efficiently. Subsurface irrigation systems can achieve water use efficiencies of up to 95%, offering the highest efficiency compared to other irrigation methods (Ayars et al., 1999). However, subsurface irrigation systems are more expensive and complex to install and maintain than other methods. The application of subsurface irrigation systems depends on soil characteristics, plant species, and water availability. When properly managed, subsurface irrigation systems increase water use efficiency and support sustainable agricultural production. Globally, only 1-2% of agricultural areas are irrigated using subsurface systems, but this figure is increasing due to climate change and water scarcity (Skaggs et al., 2010). 4.4. Irrigation Management • Determining irrigation rates Accurately determining irrigation rates is crucial to meet the optimal water requirements of plants.Various methods and formulas are used to calculate the amount of irrigation water. These methods include calculations based on soil moisture content, meteorological data (ET0), and other empirical methods. Various applications, including chemical fertilizers, hormones, soil conditioners, and pesticides, along with the application of sludge and wastewater for irrigation, are widely used. In addition to these agricultural practices, heavy metal pollution from factories and mining activities directly or indirectly contaminates water resources. Phytoremediation is emerging as a primary method to address water pollution. However, there is a need for extensive research on suitable superaccumulator plants for this approach, especially those effective in water purification. Prioritizing studies that establish a list of plants suitable for specific regions and climates is essential, as water resources are increasingly threatened by environmental pollution. Consequently, focusing on hyperaccumulating plants with respect to heavy metal pollutants is crucial to reduce water pollution and enable reuse of treated wastewater. Implementation of modern irrigation such as drip systems and improved soil management by increasing organic matter and optimizing tillage to cope with water scarcity in arid regions. Qanats and karez systems can further help by transporting water from distant sources to foothill areas. Climate change and global warming pose serious threats to agriculture, water resources and the environment, especially in the Mediterranean climate region. The region is facing rising temperatures and decreasing rainfall, while the frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods and heavy rainfall is increasing.

The Mediterranean basin holds only 1.2% of the world’s renewable water resources, and freshwater resources are expected to decrease by 25-50% by 2050. Turkey is one of the most affected countries, with decreasing water resources and significant losses in agricultural land, posing serious challenges to water supply and rural development. Rising temperatures have negatively affected traditional agricultural practices. For example, the planting dates of winter crops such as wheat and barley have changed, leading to reduced yields due to water stress. In addition, water scarcity has led to reduced soil moisture, making it more difficult to grow crops during critical periods. In Turkey, a major part of the water used in agriculture is supplied from groundwater, which is rapidly depleting, causing a decrease in groundwater levels and increasing energy costs for extraction. To overcome these challenges, sustainable soil and water management practices need to be implemented. Efficient irrigation techniques, water-saving methods, and solutions to increase agricultural productivity are crucial to address these issues. Global warming and drought are significant risks to agriculture and food security [1]. These challenges are seen not only in key climate changes such as temperature, rainfall, humidity, and sunlight, but also in the increasing frequency of extreme weather events such as floods and droughts. By 2025, the world population will reach 8.2 billion, of which 16% will live under water stress [2]. Agriculture, which is heavily dependent on irrigation, consumes 70% of surface and groundwater and 40% of total agricultural production from only 24% of irrigated land [3]. However, only half of irrigation water is effectively used by plants [4] and the demand for irrigation water is expected to increase 1.7-fold by the middle of the 21st century, complicating agricultural production [5]. With the world population projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050, increasing water demand in the domestic and industrial sectors is likely to reduce water availability for agriculture [6]. The Mediterranean region is highly vulnerable to climate change and human activities, particularly water scarcity [7]. Meteorological and hydrological droughts are increasing, with average temperatures increasing by 0.1°C per decade since the 1970s and rainfall decreasing by 25 mm [8]. Projections indicate that by 2050, the region could experience a temperature increase of 1.5–2.5°C and a 5–20% decrease in precipitation [9], leading to drier conditions and a drier climate, particularly in countries such as Italy, Greece and Turkey [10]. The Mediterranean Sea holds only 1.2% of the world’s renewable freshwater resources, with countries such as France, Italy, Greece and Turkey being its main sources [11]. However, freshwater resources in the region could decline by 25–50% by 2050, exacerbating challenges to meet drinking water and agricultural needs, particularly due to growth in tourism, urbanization and population density [12].Turkey, one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change, is facing rising temperatures and decreasing rainfall [13]. The population is projected to increase from 51 million in 1985 to 85.6 million by 2025, leading to a 14.2% decrease in agricultural land use due to urbanization and industrialization [14]. Wheat cultivation has decreased by 22%, further affecting water availability for agriculture [15]. These changes have led to regional inequalities [16], particularly between the eastern and southeastern provinces and the rest of the country [17]. Climate change has led to frequent droughts, heavy rainfall, and floods in Turkey [18], and water stress and land degradation have become major issues [19]. Overuse of groundwater has led to the formation of sinkholes, particularly in Central Anatolia, where a 2006 water table drop caused an 80% reduction in river flows, severely affecting agricultural and hydrological systems [20]. Over the past 60 years, 186 of the 240 lakes have dried up, further threatening biodiversity and reducing water levels, surface area and oxygen levels in the remaining lakes [21]. Climate change has also altered growing seasons, particularly for winter crops such as wheat and barley. Warmer autumns have delayed planting by 20–30 days, leading to reduced germination and water retention during the winter months. This has resulted in shorter growing seasons, earlier transition to the reproductive stage and reduced yields [22]. In addition, higher temperatures have allowed for crop diversification. For example, maize, which was once limited to irrigated areas, is now the second most common crop in Central Anatolia. This chapter describes the current situation in Central Anatolia and highlights the necessary measures for sustainable management of soil and water resources in arid and semi-arid climates.

2. Materials

In this section, comprehensive information about the study area will be presented, covering aspects such as soil properties, climate, topographic conditions, land use, vegetation, tillage management, irrigation practices, and soil erosion status. These data help to reveal the current conditions of the study area. The climatic data used in this study were obtained from the General Directorate of Meteorology, which ensures accuracy and reliability. Data on soil properties, topography, land use, vegetation, irrigation practices, and erosion status were collected from published research reports and scientific articles.

The aim of this section is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the environmental and agricultural context of the study area, which is essential for analyzing and addressing issues such as soil erosion and land management, tillage and irrigation, by integrating these different data sets. While some of the data used in the study were obtained from the final reports, a significant portion of the statistical data was also obtained by reprocessing these The data have been simplified to achieve the objective. In order to ensure the integrity of the study, a summary of the current situation is presented as the main headings in the results section.

2.1 Study Area

Turkey is divided into seven geographical regions, each of which differs in terms of various characteristics. Central Anatolia, as shown in Figure 1, is located in the heart of the country and includes 13 provinces [23]. This region covers an area of ​​15.1 million hectares, which is 18% of the total area of ​​Turkey, i.e. 78 million hectares [24].

2.2 Climatic Characteristics

Turkey has three main climate types: steppe, Mediterranean and Black Sea. Four geographical regions of the country are located in the steppe climate zone, namely Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and part of Thrace (Figure 2). The steppe climate zones together cover approximately 50% of the total area of ​​Turkey [24].

The steppe climate in Central Anatolia, classified as cold semi-arid, is characterized by temperate continental conditions. In this arid or semi-arid region, summers are usually hot and dry, while winters are cold and frosty, with the severity of cold increasing as you move east [25]. Winters are dry and often accompanied by snow and frost. The region experiences significant daily and annual temperature fluctuations.

As shown in Figure 3, the average temperature in January, the coldest month, is −0.2 °C, while in July, the warmest month, it rises to 23.1 °C, with an annual average of 11.7 °C. The number of rainy days varies from 70 to 114, averaging 87 days per year.

May, the wettest month, has an average of 10.4 rainy days.

Most precipitation occurs in winter and spring, with 34.87% of the annual precipitation occurring in spring, 31.62% in winter, 20.04% in autumn, and 13.47% in summer. The region experiences convective precipitation mainly during the spring months. The average annual relative humidity is 63.7%, and the region receives an average of 7.04 hours of sunshine per day [25].

Land Use

The land use in the study area is presented in Figure 4, which highlights the distribution of different land categories such as agricultural areas, forests, pastures, and other land uses.

In the study area, crops such as wheat, barley, oats, rye, chickpeas, safflower, lentils, and cumin are cultivated under rainfed conditions. Irrigated lands support the cultivation of other crops such as sugar beet, grain corn, fodder corn, sunflower, potato, onion, dry beans, alfalfa, mung bean, squash, and snack sunflower [23].

Central Anatolia has a mix of coniferous and deciduous tree species. Conifers include Taurus cedar, Scots pine, black pine, red pine, cedar, and Arizona cedar, while deciduous trees such as false acacia, juniper, narrow ash, almond, and elderberry are also found [26]. Rangelands in Central Anatolia have steppe vegetation, with annuals dominating at lower elevations and perennials at higher elevations. Rangelands in this region are mainly in poor to moderate conditions, and common plants include agarwood, creeping ivy, thyme, clover, spruce, and grasses such as sheep's beard and bluegrass [27]. However, these plants are not abundant. Overgrazing, especially in areas with small and intensive livestock farming, has led to significant degradation of pasture quality. In some areas, plants such as Juncus effusus and Cynodon dactylon are dominant due to their resistance to grazing [28]. A study in Ankara province showed that only 60.55% of the pasture area is covered by plants and 39.45% is bare soil, indicating significant land degradation. The overall quality of pastures in Central Anatolia is assessed as moderate to poor due to overgrazing, which results in nutrient-poor vegetation [29].Soil

In the Central Anatolian region, 75.9% of the soils are characterized by clay loam and clayey textures. The majority, 89.2% of the soils are slightly alkaline and almost all (99.4%) are free from salinity. However, 85.5% of these soils have low or very low organic matter content and 56.1% are rich in calcium carbonate, indicating the presence of high lime. Phosphorus availability is limited and 75.4% of the soils fall into the medium, low or very low categories. In contrast, 94.4% of the soils contain high levels of available phosphorus and potassium. Similarly, 99.2% of exchangeable calcium and 93.4% of exchangeable magnesium are classified as sufficient, high or very high. Micronutrient availability is challenging, as 44.8, 75.3 and 92.3% of soils show low or very low levels of available iron, zinc and manganese, respectively. On the other hand, available copper is abundant and 98.8% of soils are classified as sufficient [30]. Organic carbon is widely considered a critical indicator in sustainable soil management [31]. Regarding organic carbon levels, 18% of Turkish soils are classified as very low and 70% as low, with a total of 88% considered problematic and insufficient [32].

2.5 Topography

The average elevation of Turkey is 1141 m with a slope of 17%. In Central Anatolia, the average elevation is higher, at 1205 m with a slope of 9.6%. Areas below 500 meters make up 17.9% of the total area of ​​Turkey, while this proportion is only 0.1% in Central Anatolia. Elevations between 1000 and 1250 meters cover 38.3% of Central Anatolia, while areas above 1500 meters make up 17.5% of the area. About 6.2% of Turkey's land consists of areas with a slope of less than 1%, while 12.6% of the land has a slope of less than 2%. Areas with a slope of more than 20% make up 34% of the country. Meanwhile, areas with a slope of 2 to 5% make up 13.6%, and areas with a slope between 5 and 20% make up about 40%. Central Anatolia is notable for having the highest proportion of land with a slope of less than 1%. The distribution of slopes in this region is as follows: 21.3% of the land has a slope of 2–5%, 22.8% has a slope of 5–10% and 21% has a slope of 10–20% [33].

2.6 Tillage Management

In Turkey, various soil tillage tools are used for both rainfed and irrigated agriculture. Ploughing is the main tool for primary soil tillage in both systems. In rainfed agriculture, some fields are left fallow to conserve moisture due to insufficient rainfall. Primary soil tillage is usually carried out in April or May using a rotary or disc plough to a depth of 20–30 cm. Secondary tools such as cultivators or rotavators are used for soil levelling, clod breaking and weed management, usually working at depths of 10–15 cm. A combination of cultivator and harrow can also be used for the third round to prepare the seedbed, and roller tools can be used to level and compact the soil before planting. Tillage equipment such as tillers are very important for seedbed preparation, soil aeration, weed management, and soil mixing. About 50% of Turkish soil has a heavy or semi-heavy texture [32], making it susceptible to compaction caused by heavy field traffic and monoculture practices. This compaction creates a "plough base" layer that restricts root development and reduces productivity. To overcome this problem, chisel ploughs and tools such as rippers or subsoilers are recommended every 3 to 4 years to reduce compaction. In irrigated agriculture, a wider variety of tools are used. For late-harvesting crops, such as sugar beet and grain maize, a rotivator is often used after ploughing to prepare the seedbed quickly, especially in dry conditions. Sometimes a second pass with the rotivator is necessary to break up large particles and ensure a smooth seedbed.

2.7 Irrigation Management

Turkey has 24 million hectares of agricultural land, of which 12 million hectares are suitable for irrigation. Currently, 6.7 million hectares are irrigated, with 61.6% of this land using surface irrigation and 38.4% using pressurized irrigation methods. In Central Anatolia, 22% of the agricultural area is irrigated.

However, several challenges affect irrigated agriculture in Türkiye:

1. Overuse and underuse of water: Farmers often misuse water, either too much or too little, which reduces agricultural productivity and damages environmental resources. Overuse of water depletes water resources, while underuse does not meet crop needs and causes erosion, plant diseases, and environmental damage.

2. Old and poor irrigation networks: Old irrigation systems lead to water waste and inefficient water use. These systems increase farmers’ costs and contribute to environmental issues such as soil salinization.

3. Water pollution: Agricultural chemicals and untreated wastewater contaminate irrigation water. Industrial wastewater discharges further contaminate water resources, harming soil and plants, and leading to economic losses.

4. Water transport and distribution issues: Inefficient water transport systems cause significant water wastage. Surface irrigation systems have an efficiency rate of 40 to 60 percent, while pressurized systems achieve efficiencies of about 90 percent. 5. Organizational and management challenges: Poor coordination between farmers, irrigation unions, and government agencies leads to inefficient water management. These problems include ineffective irrigation planning, limited training, and a lack of financial resources to maintain the system.

6. Lack of farmer education: Many farmers lack proper education, which limits their ability to adopt modern irrigation techniques, leading to reduced productivity and environmental degradation.

7. Monitoring and evaluation problems: Inefficient monitoring of irrigation systems leads to excessive water consumption, financial strain, and environmental degradation.

Irregular practices exacerbate water loss, erosion and salinity, while uneven water distribution exacerbates social conflicts.

Soil erosion

The average elevation of Turkey is 1,132 m and 60% of the country has slopes exceeding 12%. Slopes exceeding 20% ​​cover 45% of the country, while 20% have slopes exceeding 40% and 6.5% exceed 60%. Soil erosion is a significant issue, leading to an annual loss of 642 million tons of soil (8.24 tons/ha) (Figure 5).

In Central Anatolia, the severity of erosion varies: 70.88% of the land experiences very light erosion, 13.87% light erosion, 7.29% moderate erosion, 4.53% severe erosion and 3.43% very severe erosion. Severe erosion affects 11.5% of areas with slopes above 12%, while only 1.3% of areas with slopes above 60% are affected (Figure 6). Soil loss in Central Anatolia is influenced by various factors: topography (57.35%), vegetation (30.6%), rainfall (9.48%) and soil characteristics (2.57%). Of the total soil loss, 49.15% comes from agricultural land, 46.07% from pastures and 4.78% from forests. The average annual soil loss of 8.42 tons/ha highlights the need for soil conservation measures. Soil loss in ... is high.Both agricultural lands and pastures. In pasture areas, the average annual soil loss is 18.36 t/ha, which emphasizes the need for improved management strategies. Erosion intensity in Central Anatolia is generally low, with agricultural lands contributing the most to erosion, while forests contribute the least. The main factors of erosion in the region are topography and vegetation

[26].

3. Results

Central Anatolia faces severe challenges including drought, water stress and soil degradation. Insufficient rainfall and soils lacking organic matter and nutrients inhibit plant growth. About 75% of the soil is susceptible to compaction, which affects productivity. Key issues include:

1. Tillage practices: Excessive use of tillage exacerbates moisture losses by disturbing the soil, especially in dry conditions.

2. Monoculture: Monoculture, dominated by wheat and barley, depletes soil nutrients and increases vulnerability to pests.

3. Rangeland quality: Overgrazing has led to the degradation of rangelands, with 30-35% of them being bare and over 90% classified as poor quality rangelands.

4. Soil erosion and loss: Agricultural lands and rangelands are major sources of erosion, which are worsened by poor vegetation cover and inadequate conservation practices.

5. Water resources and irrigation: Only 22% of agricultural lands are irrigated, and they mainly use surface irrigation, leading to overuse of water and soil erosion.

6. Groundwater depletion: Excessive pumping of groundwater, especially in the Konya Plain, has caused sinkholes and reduced agricultural productivity.

7. Water scarcity: Water demand exceeds supply, affecting agricultural and drinking water and contributing to water salinization.

8. Climate change and forest health: Reduced snowfall due to global warming threatens forests and requires effective management. 9. Land consolidation: Lack of land consolidation leads to fragmented agricultural practices and reduced productivity. Only half of Turkey’s irrigable land is effectively used.

4. Sustainable soil and water management

Sustainable soil and water management aims to maintain soil health and fertility, prevent erosion, and ensure efficient water use. Conservation management includes various methods that improve soil structure, reduce water loss, and manage natural resources sustainably. To achieve these goals, the focus is on issues such as preventing soil erosion, preventing soil compaction, water management and irrigation techniques, improving soil structure, mulching-green manure, supporting biodiversity, preventing soil compaction and transport, and soil monitoring and management systems.

Sustainable land and water management plays an active role in improving environmental quality by performing multiple tasks in achieving the desired goals:

(1) reducing surface runoff, protecting soil and preventing erosion, (2) improving land use, (3) adopting best management practices, (4) improving water quality, and (5) preserving biodiversity. To achieve these goals, land use regulation, physical soil conservation measures (terracing and windbreaks), biological soil conservation measures (cover crops, crop rotation, green manure, conservation tillage, contour farming, strip cropping, mulching and tillage management) and chemical soil conservation methods are used. These methods are applied in an integrated manner in sustainable rangeland and water management.1 Physical methods of soil protection

Mechanical and engineering methods are used to prevent erosion [34] and soil degradation by reducing water flow [35], increasing infiltration [36] and reducing runoff [37], and these methods improve soil stability and fertility [38]. In the central region of Anatolia, agricultural lands with a slope of 3 to 4.5% are suitable for these erosion control techniques and increase productivity.

4.1.1 Terracing

Terraces are stepped structures built on slopes to reduce soil erosion [39] and water runoff while improving water infiltration [40]. Their dimensions depend on factors such as slope, soil, rainfall and vegetation. Drainage systems prevent water from accumulating [41], while vegetation stabilizes terraces, firming the soil and helping to reduce water absorption and reduce erosion risks (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Terracing operations on sloping areas [26].

4.1.2 Windbreaks

Trees and shrubs play a vital role in reducing wind erosion and conserving soil moisture [42]. Windbreaks, which consist of rows of trees or shrubs, protect the soil (Figure 8), control erosion [43], conserve moisture and create microclimates [44]. They also prevent damage to plants [45], promote biodiversity [46] and reduce wind speed [42]. At critical stages of growth, they help to retain moisture and prevent snow cover loss [47]. To maximize benefits, windbreaks should be strategically planted and maintained, using species adapted to local climate and soil conditions.

4.2 Biological soil conservation methods

These methods use natural processes and plants to protect soil health and rely on living organisms rather than chemical inputs. These environmentally friendly methods prevent erosion, improve water infiltration, and stabilize the soil through vegetation. Compared to bare soil, areas with vegetation experience less erosion. Biological practices, often combined with other techniques, increase soil fertility, moisture retention, and biodiversity.

They are cost-effective and support sustainable agriculture by maintaining soil health and sequestering carbon. 4.2.1 Cover crops Cover crops have multiple functions, including reducing evaporation [48], conserving soil moisture [49, 50], conserving nutrients and water, improving soil quality, reducing the risk of soil erosion and controlling weeds [51], managing soil pests depending on environmental factors [52], increasing the effectiveness of nitrogen fertilizer [53], reducing nitrogen losses by reducing soil erosion, and in certain species, reducing the carbon to nitrogen ratio of plant residues [54], providing an important source of organic matter for the soil [55], cycling nutrients, stabilizing soil aggregates, etc. These plants play roles such as contributing to soil formation [56], improving soil structure [57], and reducing nitrate leaching in the soil (Figure 9) [58].

Figure 9. Cover crop planting

4.2.2 Crop rotation

This is an important practice that ensures the sustainability of agricultural production by improving the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. This method increases productivity while maintaining soil health and minimizing environmental impacts. Crop rotation is the practice of growing different crops in a specific sequence in a field. It is used to maintain soil fertility [59], reduce diseases and pests [60], improve soil structure [61] and ensure the sustainability of agricultural production. Growing plants with different root depths through crop rotation has a positive effect on the physical structure of the soil, increases the soil’s resistance to erosion [62] and increases its water holding capacity. Different plants absorb and release different nutrients from the soil. For example, legumes fix nitrogen and enrich the soil with nitrogen, while cereals consume nitrogen. This cycle helps maintain the balance of nutrients in the soil. Adding crop residues to the soil increases the amount of organic matter, which improves the chemical structure of the soil and accelerates nutrient cycling [63]. Different plants support different populations of microorganisms, increasing biodiversity and microbial activity in the soil [64], which in turn improves soil health [65]. Furthermore, differences between plants help break the growth cycles of specific diseases and pests and keep their populations under control [66, 67]. In dry areas, the focus is on maximizing soil moisture retention and choosing crops that use water stored during the rainy season, such as wheat, barley, and legumes. Crops with high water requirements, such as sunflowers and sugar beets, should be avoided. This practice increases soil health and stabilizes yields, ultimately reducing costs. Cereals and legumes: A common crop rotation alternates grains (such as wheat, barley, oats) with legumes (such as lentils, chickpeas, peas). Legumes fix nitrogen and increase soil fertility for the next grain crop.

Cereals and fallows: In low-rainfall areas, a fallow period is often followed by grain crops to restore soil moisture and reduce the risk of soil erosion.

Varied crop combinations: Including crops such as canola or forage plants can disrupt pest cycles, strengthen soil structure, and improve overall soil health. 4.2.3 Green manure This fertilizer is used to improve soil health [68], accumulate nitrogen [69], ensure environmental sustainability [70], improve water holding capacity [71], reduce the risk of plant diseases [72], reduce the adverse effects of climate change [73], help create a healthier and more resilient ecosystem by increasing biodiversity and supporting the activity of beneficial microorganisms and macroorganisms in the soil [74], reduce the impact of soil erosion [75], reduce the residual effect of chemical fertilizers and pesticides [76], which is an agricultural practice that involves the cultivation of certain plants such as vetch, clover and mustard to reduce soil compaction, make the soil more arable, aerate the soil [77], reduce the percentage of immobilization of various nutrients in the soil [78], increase the supply and absorption of plant nutrients [79] and improve the physicochemical properties of the soil (Figure 10) [80]. These plants are either incorporated into the soil or left on the soil surface. As they decompose, they add organic matter to the soil [81], improve soil structure [82], fertility [83], and moisture retention [80], and fix nutrients such as nitrogen [77]. Green manures also suppress weeds [80], prevent erosion, and can interrupt pest cycles and reduce the use of chemical fertilizers [79]. This sustainable method without synthetic fertilizers supports higher yields and improves soil organic content, especially in irrigated areas, increasing productivity for subsequent crops.4 Conservation tillage (CT)

This method reduces soil disturbance by minimizing the frequency and intensity of tillage. The main principle of conservation tillage is to minimize soil disturbance, which improves water storage and moisture retention, while also reducing soil erosion and dependence on nitrogen fertilizers by increasing surface cover [84]. It helps maintain soil structure [85], conserve moisture [86], control erosion, and increase soil porosity [87].

It improves soil health, reduces labor and energy costs, and helps sequester carbon [88] and increase soil fertility (Figure 11) [89].

Conservative tillage practices reduce bulk density, increase water holding capacity, and improve soil biological and physical properties through microbial activity [90]. Minimizing mechanical tillage practices helps reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions from fossil fuel use [91] as well as reducing labor demands [92]. This increases soil biodiversity and ecosystem functions, which can increase agricultural productivity by increasing soil organic carbon accumulation, nutrient cycling, developing soil structure, and crop resistance to pests and diseases [93]. In addition, it acts as a major reservoir for soil nitrogen exchange and storage [94]. Conservation tillage minimizes soil disturbance, increases soil organic matter over time, improves soil permeability, and supports the formation of soil microorganisms.

Conservation tillage, which includes low-tillage and no-tillage practices, helps reduce erosion and conserve soil moisture by keeping at least 30% of the soil surface covered.

It is important that CT remains a tillage practice that ensures that at least 30% of the soil surface is covered with crop residues after planting the next crop [95, 96]. Crop residues play an important role as a valuable and renewable resource [97]. CT, when applied over a long period of time, influences soil physical properties [97], ... the subsoil environment [98], stabilizes soil temperature [99], increases soil porosity and water infiltration rates during heavy rains [100], improves aggregate stability and limits soil erosion [101], and reduces runoff and soil erosion [102]. However, these benefits may vary depending on the cropping system, climate, and soil type [103]. Adding organic matter increases porosity and makes the soil more resistant to erosion, while reducing bulk density [104]. The classic method of minimum tillage increases soil organic matter content over a long period of time [105].

4.2.4.1 Reduced tillage

Reduced tillage offers several benefits, including reduced soil erosion [106], improved water retention [107], increased organic matter [108], and reduced fuel consumption and carbon emissions [109]. Methods such as leaving crop residues on the soil surface and direct seeding without tillage preserve soil structure and organic matter, increase water infiltration [110], and reduce evaporation [111]. These approaches also reduce labor and fuel costs, increase soil carbon storage [112] and support climate change mitigation [113], and make less tillage a sustainable agricultural practice that increases productivity [114] and minimizes environmental impacts (Figure 12).

Figure 12. Reduced tillage.

No-till farming improves soil health [115] and biodiversity by minimizing soil disturbance. Seeds are sown directly without tillage, and crop residues remain on the soil to protect and enrich the soil with organic matter [116]. This method supports environmental sustainability [117] and provides economic benefits by maintaining soil structure [118] and biodiversity (Figure 13) [119].5 Contour farming

Contour farming involves planting crops parallel to the contour lines of the land to reduce surface runoff and soil erosion [120, 121], conserve rainfall, and maintain fertility [122].

This method can reduce soil erosion by up to 50% and is effective on slopes of 2–10%.

It slows water flow [123], increases infiltration [124], and is even more effective when combined with other conservation practices such as no-till or minimal-till farming (Figure 14).

Figure 14. Contour farming

4.2.6 Strip farming

Strip farming involves alternating crops with different growing and harvesting times along contour lines to reduce soil erosion [37] and improve water infiltration [125]. This method slows down surface runoff [126], maintains soil fertility and disrupts the pest cycle, and reduces the need for pesticides [127]. Studies show that strip cropping can increase yields by up to 59% and reduce soil loss by 18%. It also conserves water and increases biomass, increasing productivity and sustainability (Figure 15) [128].

Figure 15. Strip harvesting.

4.2.7 Mulching

Mulching is a water-saving technique used in arid regions to conserve soil moisture and reduce evaporation [129]. It involves covering the soil with materials such as plastic or wheat straw to minimize moisture loss [130] and control weeds [131].

This method is particularly effective in vegetable and fruit farming, reducing the need for chemical herbicides [132] while maintaining soil moisture for longer periods .8 Tillage Management

Effective tillage management in drylands focuses on conserving soil moisture [133], reducing erosion [134] and improving soil health [135]. In dry climates, it is essential to select the right tillage implement to minimize soil disturbance [136], conserve moisture, manage crop residues [137] and optimize fuel and labor consumption for cost-effectiveness [138]. The right implement can significantly support these goals and ensure better crop production [67] and soil conservation [139]. Some of the recommended tillage implements include knife rollers, chisel ploughs, disc harrows, subsoilers and field cultivators.

4.3 Chemical methods in soil conservation

In drought-dominated climatic zones, the amount of plant nutrients and organic matter in the soil is insufficient. Sustainable agricultural production requires the use of adequate amounts of chemical fertilizers [140], at appropriate times, and the use of organic matter [141]. It also includes improving soil properties with soil amendments [142], reducing plant nutrient uptake due to lime and high pH [143], salt management [144], erosion control [145], use of pesticides and herbicides [146], remediation of soil contamination caused by chemicals [147], conservation of groundwater and surface water resources [148], integrated nutrient management [149], promotion of organic farming [150], education and awareness of farmers [151], use of soil enhancers [152], regulation of soil pH [153], effective use of nutrients [154], and management of fertilization [155] that can be focused on to achieve these goals.

5. Rangeland and Pasture Management in Dry Climates

Rangelands are important and complementary components of sustainable natural resource management. In dry and arid regions, rangeland management is linked to the sustainability of natural resources within the framework of ecological balance. Solving existing problems requires multiple perspectives. In this context, key issues in rangeland management include water management [156], vegetation management [157], rangeland management [158], soil health [159], climate change adaptation [160], biodiversity enhancement [161], erosion control [162] and farmer education [163].

6. Water Use and Management in Dry Climates

Water use and management are essential components for the sustainable use of land and water resources, while ensuring food security for the world’s growing population. In irrigated lands, limited irrigation water applications [164], development of effective water management strategies [165], monitoring soil moisture in the root zone during irrigation and application of techniques based on it [166], improvement of irrigation during critical periods of plant growth [167], management of groundwater and surface water resources [168], water management techniques in drought conditions [169], use of wastewater in irrigation [170], organization and management of water transmission and distribution systems [171], monitoring and evaluation systems in irrigation [172], improvement of farmers' irrigation practices [173], excessive water consumption [174], adaptation of modern irrigation systems [175], use of saline and low-quality water [176], treatment and use of domestic and industrial wastewater [177] are just some of the many diverse issues that need to be assessed in a sustainable and integrated manner. In Central Anatolia, challenges such as excessive water consumption, poor water quality and inefficient irrigation systems hinder sustainable water management. Proposed solutions include integrating farm development with irrigation systems, adopting pressurized transfer systems and transitioning to more efficient irrigation methods. Key strategies include educating farmers on water management, implementing soil moisture monitoring technologies and establishing crop rotation programs. De-irrigation tailored to plant growth stages, fertilization practices and legal measures to protect water resources will optimize water use. These measures aim to improve productivity, reduce waste and ensure sustainable water resources.