Some time ago I wrote a chapter on aloneness in: R.A. Stebbins, Predicaments: Moral Difficulty in Everyday Life. Lanham Maryland: University Press of America, 1993, chap. 9. This might be of some help.

Regards,

Bob Stebbins

I argue in the chapter I mentioned earlier that aloneness is sometimes sought for positive reasons (eg, relaxation, self-development, contemplation) and, as such, does not give rise to loneliness.

Bob Stebbins

Piggybacking on Dr. Stebbins's note, I also would like to address different forms, adaptiveness, experience, and consequences of "aloneness" and I think aloneness might be an antecedent of loneliness, but not necessarily lead to loneliness. Use and meaning of such terminology should be further elaborated including its close cousin: solitude, isolation, loneliness, or even privacy. Diekema (1992) for example, suggested three forms of aloneness: other-imposed aloneness (i.e., isolation); mutually constructed aloneness (i.e., privacy and time spent alone); and self-imposed aloneness (i.e., escapism). *Diekema, D. A. (1992). Aloneness and social form. Symbolic Interaction, 15 (4), 481-500. Look forward to more insights to this discussion.

Sunwoo Lee

Thanks for addressing the question. I will seek to secure the refs. Really pleased to have the refS.

Solitude does not convey what the participants are revealing. Dimensions of aloneness is a way forward. Not least because for me I am seeking to explore the lives of older people - 80+- and with this comes decades of ‘ways of living’ and coping and expressions of resourcefulness.

Dear Roiyah,

These days I use solitude and aloneness as synonyms as most recently expressed in Chapter 4 (Contemplation and Spirituality) in R.A. Stebbins (2015). Leisure and Positive Psychology. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Write me if you need a copy of the chapter.

Cheers,

Bob Stebbins

I have long had an interest in this topic. In many cultures' traditions, living alone (or, nearly-so) is/was esteemed. In my own novel (still under development) a period of such 'hermitting' is expected of all young adults before marriage.

Related to Roiyah's interests, I believe that loneliness for people who are older is linked to the disappearance of many of their peers, through death, and the growing inevitability of their own coming death. These things certainly are compounded when, due to generational differences, one may have 'friends', but they are people with whom one shares few common early experiences- simply because they are so much younger. The absence of a social foundation for one's experience must certainly make one feel increasingly like 'a stranger in a strange land'. Some remedy may be suggested is to allow older people to 'teach' about their experiences, including using audiovisual aids such as movies, news-clips, and so, on, to an 'audience'.

Loneliness and aloneness are commonly discussed in contradistinction. Indeed, it is repeatedly emphasized that loneliness may be experienced while surrounded by people and aloneness may be welcomed and embraced. Attached are some references that may help you in this respect. I will be happy to further assist.

Conceptually see:

Stein, J. Y., & Tuval-Mashiach, R. (2015). The social construction of loneliness: An integrative conceptualization. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 28(3), 210-227.

Gotesky, R. (1965). Aloneness, loneliness, isolation, solitude. In J. M. Edie (Ed.), An invitation to phenomenology: Studies in the philosophy of experience (pp. 211–239). Chicago, IL: Quadrangle Books.

Empirically see for instance:

Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D. (2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 227-237.

Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. PLoS medicine, 7(7), e1000316.

Cacioppo, S., Grippo, A. J., London, S., Goossens, L., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2015). Loneliness: Clinical import and interventions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 238-249.

Many thanks for the references! It seems vital that the concept of aloneness is developed further both alongside but perhaps also analytically separate from loneliness. Happy to be gaining new insight from colleagues.

Winnicott (1958) describes the capacity to be alone as an acquired capacity that is critical to creating an internal, authentic, and rich self. Aloneness, according to this approach, is in contrast to loneliness. The ability to be alone is depicted as an experience of active capability, as opposed to loneliness, which is described as a passive experience accompanied by helplessness.

I have discussed these distivtions in a recent paper:

Shoshana, A. and Schade Sahar. (2018). Agentive Suspension of Oppressive Structures: Self-Concept and Emotion-Work among Muslim Mothers Who Study at Israeli University. Gender and Education 30(7): 934-950.

Hi all, I have been following this discussion intently and have been reflecting on my own research and professional experiences in residential ageing/long-term care where we are charged with combating loneliness. I would agree aloness is an important part of many individuals lives personified in their leisure pursuits, for example; solo hiking or recreational lap swimming are very common individual leisure pursuits. These allow time for many individual aspects that are appealing to such as self-reflection, relaxation and mindfulness – these therapeutic aspects only possible if the individual can be alone. In some clinical settings this aloness is quite complex to facilitate.

In my own research, there seems to be an emerging link between loneliness (limited supports within an individual’s basic psychological needs particularly that of Relatedness) and amotivation – perhaps even to suggest that loneliness could be a precursor to amotivation. I note Self Determination Theory has been applied to loneliness, particularly the role of autonomy and relatedness in loneliness & well-being within a few populations with varied results – may be worth a look in response to the original question.

I'd like to add few references to Stewart's note.

Chua, S., & Koestner, R. (2008). A self-determination theory perspective on the role of autonomy in solitary behaviour. Journal of Social Psychology, 148, 645-647.

Dankaert, E. S., Guse, T., & van Zyl, C. J. (2017). Psychometric properties of the Motivation for Solitude Scale–Short Form in a sample of South African adolescents. South African Journal of Psychology, 0081246317744391.

Nicole, C. C. (2005). Self-determined motivation for solitude and relationship: Scale development and validation. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 66(11-B), 6286.

Wellbeing literature includes notions of relationality that draws on the material context that shapes and is shaped by emotion and affectivity. There is also the notion of movement between different states. What about an exploration of aloneness as seperate from but not the opposite of loneliness?

Roiyah Saltus,

Considering aloneness separately is how leisure studies scholars study contemplation and spirituality (as leisure activities). I've written in this area, but Paul Heintzman (Univ. of Ottawa) is the leading thinker here.

Bob Stebbins