Modifications in baking parameters—time, temperature, and moisture—significantly influence the physicochemical and nutritional quality of finger millet–carrot pomace cookies. Higher baking temperatures or prolonged baking times can enhance Maillard reactions and browning, improving color and flavor but potentially reducing heat-sensitive nutrients such as vitamins and antioxidants. Excessive heat may also increase starch gelatinization and protein denaturation, affecting texture by making cookies harder or overly crisp. Moisture content influences spread, porosity, and crumb structure, with lower moisture yielding crispier cookies and higher moisture contributing to a softer texture. Optimal adjustment of these parameters ensures a balance between desirable texture, flavor, color, and retention of bioactive compounds, maintaining both sensory appeal and nutrient density in the final product.

Baking parameters directly influence cookie quality. Higher time and temperature reduce moisture, improve crispness, and enhance color, but may cause nutrient loss and acrylamide formation. Too low baking leads to undercooked cookies with poor texture and short shelf-life. Moisture control affects hardness, water activity, and microbial safety. Moderate heating improves starch and protein digestibility, while excessive heating reduces amino acid availability and antioxidant activity.

Baking is a critical step in cookie production, as it not only determines the sensory appeal of the final product but also governs its physicochemical and nutritional quality.

1. Baking Time

• Physicochemical Effects: Longer baking increases Maillard reaction and caramelization, deepening color and enhancing flavor.
• Nutritional Effects: Extended baking can degrade heat-sensitive vitamins (e.g., B-vitamins). Excessive drying reduces moisture but may concentrate calories per gram.

2. Baking Temperature

• Physicochemical Effects: Higher temperature accelerates surface browning (Maillard + caramelization), influencing color and flavor profile. High temperatures cause faster moisture evaporation, affecting texture (crisper, drier).
• Nutritional Effects: High heat accelerates nutrient degradation (e.g., antioxidants, polyphenols). Promotes lipid oxidation if fats are unsaturated. May also reduce bioactive compound retention (like phenolics from enriched flours).

3. Moisture (Water Activity, Humidity, and Dough Moisture Content)

• Physicochemical Effects: Higher initial dough moisture promotes greater spread and softer texture after baking. Moisture retention can improve chewiness but may compromise crispness.
• Nutritional Effects: Higher moisture during baking can reduce acrylamide formation (since acrylamide formation is favored in low-moisture conditions). Retained moisture may preserve some heat-sensitive bioactives, depending on matrix.

Overall Interplay

• High temperature + long time → darker color, crispier texture, lower nutrient retention.