Basically, when people feel emotion, they feel physiological arousal and the person uses their surroundings to search for emotional cues to label the physiological arousal. This can sometimes cause misinterpretations of emotions based on the body’s physiological state. When the brain does not know why it feels an emotion it relies on external stimulation for cues on how to label the emotion.

However, a similar and more prevalent theory of emotion was put forth by Morgan and Heise. This widely used dimensional model consists of two factors: emotional valence and emotional arousal (Morgan & Heise, 1998; Russell et al., 1989).  The valence dimension represents the degree to which an affective state is considered pleasant or unpleasant, while the arousal dimension captures the extent to which an individual reports feeling awake and alert or lethargic and drowsy  (Posner et al., 2005; Russell, et al., 1989).  Multiple studies have found that discrete emotions can be reliably mapped onto dimensional states (e.g., Posner et al., 2009; Posner et al., 2005; Russell et al., 1989).  In addition to self-report studies, the two dimensional model of emotional experience has gained support from neurobiological studies in which specific peripheral physiological responses correspond to self-reported valence and arousal levels. For example, skin conductance and heart rate have been shown to vary in accordance with subjective reports of arousal while certain facial and eye movements are more closely associated with subjective ratings of positive or negative moods state (Posner et al., 2005, Posner et al., 2009). 

No much need to repeat the excellent explanation above. Will just add that the credit often goes to both Schachter & Singer

Socio-Physicochemical Interpretation of Stress Situations

The Two-factor Theory of Emotions is in fact an alternative way to explain Stress – Strain Situation, which may be induced by events including extreme events e.g. terror. Inferences of the two factor theory provide strong support to the Socio-Physicochemical Theory which holds that the aftermath of events is behavioural response that may give rise to organic symptoms (physical factors) as well as emotional (CNS related factors) symptoms. Events may trigger a stressful stimulus that is the brain’s natural tendency to inflate the perceived frequency or severity of event. Strain induced by the stress results in physiological reactions such as tense muscles, rapid heartbeat and hysterical breathing. Stress and worry are fueled by the skewed perception of events.

The aftermath of stress induced strain is behavioral reaction or response to physical and emotional danger. The behavioral and psychological symptoms that appear are indicators of the stress-strain relationship between stressor and the stressed (Physiological Responses to Terror, 23 APRIL 2011, Martha L. Hyde and  http://marthalhyde.wordpress.com).

Organic symptoms appear during stress situations as a result of release of hormones like adrenalin and cortisol, which speed up the heart rate, slow down digestion, shunt blood flow to major muscle groups, and change other autonomic nervous functions, giving the body a burst of energy and strength.

The fight-or-flight response, better understood as a response to stress, refers to a psychological reaction that occurs in the presence of something that is stressful, mentally as well as physically. In response to acute stress, the body's sympathetic nervous system is activated due to the sudden release of hormones. The sympathetic nervous systems stimulate the adrenal glands triggering the release of catecholamines, which include adrenaline and noradrenaline. This results in an increase in heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate. After the threat is gone, it takes between 20 to 60 minutes for the body to return to its pre-arousal levels.

The two factors may appear in situations where neither response is appropriate, like in traffic or during a stressful day at work. When the perceived stress is gone, systems are designed to return to normal function through the relaxation response, but in our times of chronic stress, this often does not happen enough, causing damage to the body.

The physiological reactions are in response to the corollary that all actions and reactions are moved or motivated by an underlying stress within this stress-driven world. It is the stress induced strain that most people may not even recognize, mainly because they are not consciously aware of its presence. One of the reasons why the stress induced strain has taken the driving seat is that it gets things done, often according to what needs to be done, for example:

§  Threatening punishment to kids for misbehaving

§  Threatening loss of job for the employee who does not perform

§  Threatening fines and imprisonment for those who break the laws of the government, and

§  Threats to cross the border and occupy a piece of land or territory

 It is important to realize that stress begets more stress, and the more the life is focused on stress, the more the stress persists in the system. Stress and acts that induce stress are part of a never ending vicious cycle. The way out of a stress-driven life is accommodation so as to focus the thought process and intentions on ground reality.

Dr. Mirza Arshad Ali Beg

Former Director General PCSIR and

Author of Book: New Dimensions in Sociology, A Physicochemical Approach to Human Behaviour, Karachi 1987

Socio-Physicochemical Interpretation of Two Factor Theory

Dr. Mirza Arshad Ali Beg 

The Schachter–Singer theory, or two-factor theory of emotion, states that emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive label. The theory developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer, states that physiological arousal occurs when an emotion is felt, and the person uses the immediate environment to search for emotional cues to label the physiological arousal. This can sometimes cause misinterpretations of emotions based on the body’s physiological state. When the brain does not know why it feels an emotion it relies on external stimulation for cues on how to label the emotion.

Misinterpretation of emotions is generally possible in case of social sciences because the latter is not exact science. The theory has been criticized; its criticism is based on the attempted replications of the Schachter and Singer (1962) study. Marshall and Zimbardo (1979, and Marshall 1976) tried to replicate the Schachter and Singer’s euphoria conditions. Another criticism on the Theory is primarily on the autonomic nervous system and provides no account of the emotional process within the central nervous system aside from signaling the role of cognitive factors. This is important considering the heavy implication of certain brain centers in mitigating emotional experience (e.g., fear and the amygdala). (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-factor_theory_of_emotion)

Socio-Physicochemical Interpretation of Stress Situations

The Two-factor Theory of Emotions is in fact an alternative way to explain Stress – Strain relationship. Socio-Physicochemical principles do suggest that the two factors: physical and emotional are generally triggered by the events including extreme events e.g. terror.

Inferences of the Two-factor Theory provide strong support to the Socio-Physicochemical Theory which holds that the aftermath of events is behavioural response that may give rise to organic symptoms (physical factors) as well as emotional (CNS related factors) symptoms. Events may trigger a mild or stressful stimulus; the brain’s natural tendency will then inflate or deflate the perceived frequency or severity of event. Strain induced by the stress results in physiological reactions such as tense muscles, rapid heartbeat and hysterical breathing. Stress and worry are fueled by the skewed perception of events.

The aftermath of stress induced strain is behavioral reaction or response to physical and emotional danger. The behavioral and psychological symptoms that appear are indicators of the stress-strain relationship between stressor and the stressed (Physiological Responses to Terror, 23 APRIL 2011, Martha L. Hyde and  http://marthalhyde.wordpress.com).

Organic symptoms appear during stress situations as a result of release of hormones like adrenalin and cortisol, which speed up the heart rate, slow down digestion, shunt blood flow to major muscle groups, and change other autonomic nervous functions, giving the body a burst of energy and strength followed by pause and slow down.

The fight-or-flight response, better understood as a response to stress, refers to a psychological reaction that occurs in the presence of something that is mentally as well as physically stressful. In response to acute stress, the body's sympathetic nervous system is activated due to the sudden release of hormones. The sympathetic nervous systems stimulate the adrenal glands triggering the release of catecholamines, which include adrenaline and noradrenaline. This results in an increase in heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate. It takes between 20 to 60 minutes for the body to return to its pre-arousal levels after the threat is gone and the stress is removed.

The two factors may appear in situations where neither response is appropriate, e.g. in traffic or during a stressful day at work. When the perceived stress is gone, systems return to normal function through the relaxation response, but in times of chronic stress, this often does not happen oftentimes, causing damage to the body.

The physiological reactions are in response to the corollary that all actions and reactions are moved or motivated by an underlying stress within stress-driven situations. It is the stress induced strain that most people may not even recognize, mainly because they are not consciously aware of its presence. One of the reasons why the stress induced strain has taken the driving seat is that it gets things done, often according to what needs to be done, for example:

§  Threatening punishment to kids for misbehaving

§  Threatening loss of job for the employee who does not perform

§  Threatening fines and imprisonment for those who break the laws of the government, and

§  Threats to cross the border and occupy a piece of land or territory

Emotions that are routinely felt enter at times a state of arousal, in which the body, brain and the central nervous system (CNS) experience escalated physiological activity and emotion. States of arousal can be positive and negative and include fear, anger, curiosity and love, which are felt with an overpowering intensity that drives us to act, often in an instinctive way. This can be both powerful and dangerous, for all and sundry.

Arousal can be both positive and negative in experience, for example in excitement or fear. A lack of arousal can also be positive or negative, for example in relaxation or boredom.

Physiological Arousal starts in the brain, where the Reticular Activation System connects the primitive brain stem and the cortex and affects sleeping-waking transitions. In arousal, it acts to increase wakefulness and consequent alertness and attention. Arousal caused by threat, triggers fight or flight reaction. Arousal typically happens when the body releases chemicals into the brain that act to stimulate emotions, reduce cortical functioning and hence conscious control, and create physical agitation and 'readiness for action'. The endocrine system stimulates different glands, particularly adrenaline, which increases oxygen and glucose flow, dilates the pupils and suppresses non-urgent systems such as digestion and the immune system. Arousal often happens through a trigger, which appears through one of our senses, for example through Touch, Vision, Hearing, Smell or Taste.

Arousal spreads through the Sympathetic Nervous System, with effects such as increasing the heart rate and breathing to enable physical action and perspiration to cool the body. It also has specific actions such as stimulating sexual arousal.

Emotional arousal is a process, which means it happens as a sequence over time. Understanding this is a step towards being able to manage the process.

Impact of Arousal

In situations of negative stress, the state of fight - or – flight is reached  when primitive responses designed to keep us alive are kicked into motion.In sexual arousal, our bodies prepare themselves for sexual intercourse and our brains go into overdrive in a state of intense desire for completion of this most basic of acts.In other states of stimulation, people report feelings of 'being more alive', as senses become more acute and the skin prickles in excitement. We all have a need for arousal at some level and being aroused is a pleasurable state that plays to basic needs for stimulation.

Even negative states such as fear and anger have their benefits. Angry people report feeling all-powerful, perhaps harking back to neonatal states of infantile omnipotence.

Fearful people also may access early memories of being subsequently comforted. Fear is also a common factor in many hobbies, especially extreme sports, where people do things deliberately to become aroused, from skiing to watching horror movies.

In states of depression, the opposite occurs and suffers may be unable to feel any sense of arousal, interest and engagement with the world.

 In summary, arousal is the result of stimulation, and greater the stimulation, the greater is the intensity of arousal. Greater stimulation induces high intensity excitement which characterises spontaneity and spontaneous reactions that are accompanied by high entropy. The increase in entropy (S) is at the cost of internal energy or enthalpy (H) in the fundamental equation: G = H - TS. In particular when other basic needs for safety and social position are adequate, no one stops but keeps looking for more excitement.

It is important to realize that stress begets strain, and the more the life is focused on stress, the more the strain is likely to persist in the system. Stress and acts that induce strain are part of a never ending vicious cycle. The way out of a stress-strain muddle is accommodation so as to focus the thought process and intentions on ground reality.

Dr. Mirza Arshad Ali Beg

Former Director General PCSIR and

Author of Book: New Dimensions in Sociology, A Physicochemical Approach to Human Behaviour, Karachi 1987