I picked this old article for my comment because its reference to redshift brings to mind what I call readshift, and the early universe it refers to reminds me that interpretations of the experiments on accelerating universal expansion seem to have overlooked something viz the advanced waveforms Richard Feynman loved. The waves' travels back in time are no longer violation of cause and effect if all time is unified (my journal article [in "IPI Letters", link at bottom] explains this at the start of section 7 but I'll paste the relevant paragraph below for your convenience). * The farther away a star or galaxy is, the more the advanced part of waves from it will reach into the past, giving us a greater inaccuracy regarding its true distance. This increase is analogous to redshift increasing with distance. We might call it readshift - re(tarded) ad(vanced) shift (see Kaku/Rainich note). Readshift would explain the astronomical results which were interpreted as accelerating expansion of the universe. Surveyed supernovas would appear fainter, therefore apparently farther away than they truly are. Unless advanced waves are considered a possibility, the only rational way to move a supernova from its true, nearer position to its apparent, farther location is to conclude the universe has expanded.
* Einstein published a paper in 1919 called "Do gravitational fields play an essential role in the structure of elementary particles?" This is usually regarded as discredited by discovery of the nuclear forces in the 1930's but it inspired my Vector-Tensor-Scalar Geometry which says the mass - masslessness in the case of the gluon - and quantum spin of the nuclear forces' bosons results from photon-graviton, or electromagnetic-gravitational, interaction. Both gravitational and electromagnetic waves possess retarded and advanced components which travel forwards and backwards in time, cancelling one another and entangling all masses. Wick rotation (producing the 4th dimension of time) is built into the 2D Mobius strips which can be coded for by 1D binary digits. Two Mobius strips combine to form a figure-8 Klein bottle (which is immersed in 3D). The strips and bottles respectively form electromagnetism's photons and gravitation's gravitons. Therefore, all time (the entire past and present and future) is united into one thing just as all space and all mass are united into one thing. If time only passed rectilinearly - from past to present to future - the idea of waves travelling back in time would make no sense at all. But if Einstein is correct about time (and space) being curved - with past, present, and future being potentially interconnected - time might be able to move from future to present to past. The concepts of cause and effect are no longer separate when all periods of time are united, and everything can happen “at once”. This is similar to watching a DVD – every event on the DVD exists at once since the whole DVD exists but we’re only aware of sights and sounds occurring in each tiny fraction of a second. If the entire "Cosmic DVD" is viewed, unity of past/present/future may remove the issue of non-simultaneity – in special relativity – because the timing or sequence of events being different in different frames of reference can only exist if past/present/future are separate. The act of different observers having different perspectives could only exist if the frame of reference is that of particular points on the disk giving rise to sights and sounds occurring in each tiny fraction of a second.
(12) (PDF) The 5th Dimension and its Implications for the String Theory, Conservation of Energy and Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375042495_The_5th_Dimension_and_its_Implications_for_the_String_Theory_Conservation_of_Energy_and_Heisenberg_Uncertainty_Principle [accessed Nov 27 2023].
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