Dear Mr. Ahmad,

the answer is simple: “All kinds of landforms”. I was trained as geographer (minor discipline) in terms of climatic-geomorphology. Climate has a strong say in the built-up of landforms and is responsible for shaping the landscape. There may be lithologies which stand out from the landscape creating structural forms, but by and large, the first-order influence is exerted by the climate changing from pole to the equator. For further reading and an overview of the formation of the landscape and weathering please turn to the two papers below (available for download from RG). You will find more literature to browse:

DILL, H.G. (2017) An overview of the pegmatitic landscape from the pole to the equator – Applied geomorphology and ore guides.- Ore Geology Reviews 91: 795 – 823.

DILL, H.G., WEBER, B. and BOTZ, R. (2013) Metalliferous duricrusts (“orecretes”) - markers of weathering: A mineralogical and climatic-geomorphological approach to supergene Pb-Zn-Cu-Sb-P mineralization on different parent materials.- Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie Abhandlungen, 190: 123-195.

I wish you much success

H.G.Dill

Ijaz,

Given the lithologies, Volcanic rocks, Plutonic rocks, Sedimentary rocks and Metamorphic rocks, one would expect the crystalline rocks to form highlands and clastic rocks to form lowlands but nature is not so simple. Lithology is only one, there are many others. Even under exogenetic processes, i. e. not tectonic, the nature of the process comes into consideration - water (and in what form), wind or gravity.

It is interesting to note that weathered sandstone or shale can get so indurated that they can wear harder than coarse-grained granite or foliated metamorphic rocks. This brings in the climatic regime of the processes.

So, lithology alone is not the sole architect of landforms.

All the best.

Obianuju P. Umeji

Thanks for good question

I agree with Dr. Harald G. Dill.

Sorry, but it's not that simple:

Anyone who deals with the qualitative geological aerial image interpretation (remote sensing) knows a number of important evaluation criteria and possible petrographic conclusions:

Drainage pattern speckle pattern Erosion pattern Vegetation pattern border characteristics Textural features Topographic position

Please find attached a PDF showing some examples of different textural patterns in plan view and profile view.

These few examples clearly show that topographical geomorphological landforms/features may well be characterized by specific geological subsoil or rock formations.

Best regards,

Guenter Grundmann

Dear colleagues:

Some books which show the interrelation between the two "major players" atmosphere, and the lithosphere leading to different landforms.

Adams, W.M., Goudie, A.S., Ome, A.R., 1996, The physical geography of Africa.- Oxford University Press, Oxford, 429 pp.

Allaby, A., and Allaby, M. 2003, Dictionary of Earth Sciences: 1st Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 640 pp.

Bremer, H., 1993, Etchplanation, review and comments of Büdel’s model. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie N.F., Supplement-Band 92, 189–200. Bremer, H., 2002, Tropical weathering, landforms and geomorphological processes. fieldwork and laboratory analysis. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie N.F. 46, 273-291.

Büdel, J., 1977, Klima-Geomorphologie. Gebrüder Bornträger Berlin, Stuttgart, 304 pp.

Centeno, J.D., García Rodríguez, M. and Moya Palomares, M.E. (2010) Influence of granite landforms on water balance in semi-arid and humid climates Cadernos Lab. Xeolóxico de Laxe Coruña 35, 99 – 108 Dalrymple, J.B., Blong, R.J., Conacher, A.J. 1968, A hypothetical nine-unit landsurface model. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 12, 60-76.

Goudie, A.S., Viles, H.A., 1999, The frequency and magnitude concept in relation to rock weathering. Zeitschrift Geomorph. Suppl. 115, 175-189. Harris, S. A., 1994, Climatic zonality of periglacial landforms in mountain areas. Arctic, 47, 164-192.

Holden, J., 2008, An Introduction to Physical Geography and the Environment. Prentice Hall, 769 pp.

Meadows M.E., 2001, The role of Quaternary environmental change in the evolution of landscapes: case studies from southern Africa. Catena 42, 39-57

Migoń, P., 2006, Granite landscapes of the world. Oxford University Press, New York, 384 pp.

Schaetzl R. J., Anderson, S., 2005 Soils: genesis and geomorphology. Cambridge University Press , Cambridge, 791 pp.

Summerfield, M.A., 1991, Global geomorphology. John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York, 537 pp.

Taboada, T., Romero, R., García, C., 1990, Weathering evolution of a biotite granite (El Pindo, Galicia, NW Spain). Chemical Geology 84, 130-132. Taylor, G., Eggleton, R.A., 2009, Regolith geology and geomorphology: John Wiley & Sons, 375 pp.

Thomas, M.F., 1994, Geomorphology in the Tropics. Wiley, Chichester 460 pp.

Thomas, M.F., 1995, Models for landform development on passive margins. Some implications for relief development in glaciated areas. Geomorphology, 12, 3–15.

Thomas, M.F. 2001, Landscape sensitivity in time and space – an introduction. Catena 42, 83-98.

Thomas, M.F., 2004, Landscape sensitivity to rapid environmental change – a Quaternary perspective with examples from tropical areas. Catena, 55, 107-124.

Tricart, J., Cailleux, A., 1972, Introduction to climatic geomorphology. Longman, London, 295 pp.

Twidale, C. R., 2002, The two-stage concept of landform and landscape development involving etching. origin, development and implications of an idea. Earth Science Reviews, 57, 37-74.

With kind regards

H.G.Dill

Good question. There are many interesting and diverse geomorphic features in Iran, still required to be studied. Previous literature about Iranian geomorphological landforms of Iran have been detailed by many researches such as Ribben, Stocklin, Oberlander, Brooks, Krinsley Dereaux, etc. The info on their works can be sent if necessary.

You may refer to another book:

Rocks and Landforms by John Gerrard. It details quite nicely the different probable landforms and landscapes developing in different lithological settings and under different climatic regimes. This is the link to the book on te publisher's website:

http://www.springer.com/in/book/9789401159852

Dear Ijaz Ahmad, I tried to get interesting information and please go through it if it may be helpful to you.

A rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of minerals, and certain non-mineral materials such as fossils and glass. Just as minerals are the building blocks of rocks, rocks in turn are the natural building blocks of the Earth's LITHOSPHERE (crust and mantle down to a depth of about 100 km), ASTHENOSPHERE (although this layer, in the depth range from about 100 to 250 km, is partially molten), MESOSPHERE (mantle in the depth range from about 250 to 2900 km), and even part of the CORE (while the outer core is molten, the inner core is solid). Most rocks now exposed at the surface of the Earth formed in or on continental or oceanic crust. Many such rocks, formed beneath the surface and now exposed at the surface, were delivered to the surface from great depths in the crust and in rare cases from the underlying mantle.

IGNEOUS ROCKS form by crystallization from molten or partially material, called MAGMA. Magma comes mainly from two places where it is formed, (1) in the asthenosphere and (2) in the base of the crust above subducting lithosphere at a convergent plate boundary. There are two subclasses of igneous rock, VOLCANIC (sometime called EXTRUSIVE), and PLUTONIC (sometimes called INTRUSIVE).

VOLCANIC ROCKS form at the Earth's surface. They cool and crystallized from magma which has spilled out onto the surface at a volcano. At the surface, the magma is more familiarly known as LAVA.

PLUTONIC ROCKS form from magma that cools and crystallizes beneath the Earth's surface. In a sense, this is the portion of the magma that never makes it to the surface. For the plutonic rock to become exposed at the surface, it must be tectonically uplifted and the overlying material must be removed by erosion.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS form from material that has accumulated on the Earth's surface. The general term for the process of accumulation is DEPOSITION. The material consists of the products of weathering and erosion, and other materials available at the surface of the Earth, such as organic material. The process by which this otherwise unconsolidated material becomes solidified into rock is variously referred to LITHIFICATION (literally turned into rock), DIAGENESIS or CEMENTATION. Like volcanic rocks, some sedimentary rocks are "lithified" right at the surface, for instance by direct precipitation from sea water. Other sedimentary rocks, like plutonic igneous rocks, are "lithified" below the surface, when they are buried under the weight of overlying sediment. And like the plutonic rocks, sedimentary rocks which were lithified below the surface only become exposed at the surface by tectonic uplift and erosion of the overlying material.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS form when a sedimentary or igneous rock is exposed to high pressure, high temperature, or both, deep below the surface of the Earth. The process, METAMORPHISM, produces fundamental changes in the mineralogy and texture of the rock. The original rock, prior to metamorphism, is referred to as the PROTOLITH. The protolith can be either an igneous rock or a sedimentary rock, as just indicated. The protolith could also be a previously metamorphosed rock. Ultimately however, if you go far enough back into the history of a metamorphic rock you would find that the first protolith was either a sedimentary or igneous rock. Because all metamorphic rocks form below the surface, for them to become exposed at the surface, they must undergo tectonic uplift and removal of the overlying material by erosion.