Primary succession is the process of ecological community development in an area where no community previously existed, such as a newly formed volcanic island or a glacier-scoured landscape.

Secondary succession is the process of ecological community development in an area where a community was previously disrupted or destroyed, but the soil and some organic matter remain. This can happen due to natural disturbances like wildfires, floods, or insect outbreaks, or human disturbances like deforestation or agriculture.

Loss of biodiversity is the reduction in the variety of life within a given ecosystem. This can happen due to a variety of factors, including habitat loss, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation.

The transition from primary to secondary succession and loss of biodiversity can affect the resilience of an ecosystem in a number of ways:

• Reduced community diversity: Primary succession typically begins with a few pioneer species that are able to colonize the harsh environment. Over time, the community becomes more diverse as new species arrive and establish themselves. Secondary succession, on the other hand, often begins with a more diverse community than primary succession, as many of the species that were present before the disturbance are able to recolonize the area. However, if the disturbance was severe, or if there is a loss of biodiversity due to other factors, the secondary succession community may be less diverse than the original community.
• Loss of keystone species: Keystone species are species that play a disproportionately large role in maintaining the structure and function of an ecosystem. For example, beavers are keystone species in many wetland ecosystems because they create dams that create ponds and marshes, which provide habitat for a variety of other species. If a keystone species is lost from an ecosystem, it can lead to a cascade of effects that can reduce the resilience of the ecosystem.
• Reduced ecosystem services: Ecosystems provide a variety of services to humans, such as water purification, pollination, and climate regulation. Biodiversity is essential for the provision of these services. For example, a diverse community of pollinators is essential for crop production. If biodiversity is lost, it can reduce the capacity of an ecosystem to provide these services.

Overall, the transition from primary to secondary succession and loss of biodiversity can reduce the resilience of an ecosystem by making it more susceptible to disturbances and less able to recover from them.

Here are some specific examples of how the transition from primary to secondary succession and loss of biodiversity can affect the resilience of different ecosystems:

• Forests: Forests are highly resilient ecosystems because they have a high diversity of species and complex food webs. However, deforestation and climate change can reduce the resilience of forests by making them more susceptible to wildfires, pests, and diseases.
• Coral reefs: Coral reefs are also highly diverse ecosystems that are important for coastal protection and tourism. However, ocean warming and pollution can reduce the resilience of coral reefs by making them more susceptible to bleaching and disease.
• Wetlands: Wetlands are important for flood control, water filtration, and wildlife habitat. However, wetlands are often drained and developed for agriculture or other purposes. This can reduce the resilience of wetland ecosystems by making them more susceptible to droughts and floods.

It is important to protect biodiversity and manage ecosystems sustainably in order to maintain their resilience. This will help ecosystems to recover from disturbances and continue to provide important services to humans and other species.

Dr Murtadha Shukur thank you for your contribution to the discussion

In primary succession, newly exposed or newly formed rock is colonized by living things for the first time. In secondary succession, an area that was previously occupied by living things is disturbed, and then re-colonized following the disturbance. During primary succession, pioneer species live off of rocks present in the ecosystem. As time passes, the pioneer species break down the rocks. As the pioneer species decompose, they are mixed in with the broken rock to form soil. Ecological succession is the process by which the mix of species and habitat in an area changes over time. Gradually, these communities replace one another until a “climax community” like a mature forest is reached, or until a disturbance, like a fire, occurs. Secondary succession is a type of ecological succession which occurs on a pre-existing soil. It starts from the events like forest fires, hurricanes, tsunami et cetera. The ecological succession occurs in the five stages viz nudation, invasion, competition and coaction, reaction and stabilization. It helps to recognise the seral stage of a biotic community in an area. Primary succession and secondary succession are both dominated by small primary producers with relatively fewer animals present. These producers both result in altered landscapes which lead to the flourishing of other species. Secondary succession occurs faster than primary succession because it already has a physical substrate, such as soil that is capable of sustaining life. Biodiversity loss can reduce the ability of ecosystems to buffer these events, increasing the vulnerability of human settlements to natural disasters. Reduced resilience to climate change: Biodiversity is crucial for ecosystem resilience to climate change. Ecosystem resilience is the ability of an ecosystem to absorb change and return to the same equilibrium state after a temporary disturbance. Ecosystems with higher species diversity tend to be more resilient. Greater biodiversity in ecosystems, species, and individuals leads to greater stability. For example, species with high genetic diversity and many populations that are adapted to a wide variety of conditions are more likely to be able to weather disturbances, disease, and climate change. A number of studies have found organizations with a more heterogeneous work force tend to be more profitable and resilient than their less diverse peers. Overall, the transition from primary to secondary succession and loss of biodiversity can reduce the resilience of an ecosystem by making it more susceptible to disturbances and less able to recover from them. In secondary succession, the changes to biotic factors are less as there are usually surviving organisms and seeds and roots in the soil that can help regenerate the area quicker. Moreover, with remnants of the previous community existing, there's a certain level of biodiversity already present.