RESEARCH IN READING COMPREHENSION: GATHERING INFORMATION ON TEST-TAKING PROCESSES AS PART OF CONSTRUCT VALIDATION

Anderson et al. (1991) undertake highly focused research on Language Testing, which “examines the use of reading comprehension tests and reading purposes.” Like this manner, their paper, based on good, effective, and relevant hypotheses in relation to its research objectives, “serves as a methodological exploration in the use of information from think-aloud protocols and more commonly used types of information on test content and test performance in the investigation of construct validity.” In doing so, in keeping with Bachman and Cohen (1998), we believe that this paper does bring out to the open the production of tests, useful to both Language Testing (LT) and Second Language Acquisition (SLA) professionals, which would provide information interpretable of the language abilities acquired or measured as evidence of communicative competence in context. Hence, it may involve a major breakthrough in LT and SLA research regarding “the second language classroom teacher underpinned by how readers should be taught to take standardized tests so that their scores will more appropriately reflect their students’ language abilities,” as Anderson et al. (1991) point out. In that regard, Sheeba (2018) indicates that “the communicative approach to language teaching has given instructors a different understanding of the role of reading in the language classroom and of the type of texts that can be used in instruction.” This way, we believe that these procedures may contribute towards a variety of methods and materials, which at present play an active part in reading classroom. In this respect, Anderson and Pearson (1984) specify that our task is to characterize basic processes of reading comprehension. They do not present a model of the entire reading process, beginning with the focusing of the eye on the printed page and ending with the encoding of information into long-term semantic memory or its subsequent retrieval for purposes of demonstrating comprehension to someone in the outer world. Instead, they focus on one aspect of comprehension of particular importance to reading comprehension: the issue of how the reader's schemata, or knowledge already stored in memory, function in the process of interpreting new information and allowing it to enter and become a part of the knowledge store. They, then, highlight that whether we are aware of it or not, it is this interaction of new information with old knowledge that we mean when we use the term comprehension. They, then, notice that to say that one has comprehended a text is to say that her/she has found a mental "home" for the information in the text, or else that he or she has modified an existing mental home in order to accommodate that new information. In other words, the interaction between old and new information. Therefore, Anderson and Pearson (1984), emphasize, overall, the importance of the “basic principle of Gestalt Psychology, called the Law of Pragnanz, which consists of “that mental organization, which will always be as good as prevailing conditions allow.” Particularly, they clearly draw attention to, “how a schema may be modified to accommodate new information” as regards basic processes of reading comprehension.

Progressing in the exposed sense, Bialystok and Ryan (1985) examine a range of metalinguistic tasks in terms of cognitive and linguistic prerequisites to their solutions. They argue that conceptualizing metalinguistic ability as reliance on (1) growth in analysis of knowledge of language and (2) increased control over cognitive operations makes it possible to relate metalinguistic ability to other language skills. To clarify what is intended by the term metalinguistic ability, they look at a variety of tasks, considered to be metalinguistic, in terms of the cognitive and linguistic prerequisites to their solution. They indentify, subsequently, two cognitive skills, which develop throughout childhood as underlying requirements to the solution of these metalinguistic problems. These skills refer to the growth in analysis of knowledge of language, and the increased control over cognitive operations. Hence, Bialystok and Ryan (1985) underline that by conceptualizing metalinguistic ability as reliance on these two cognitive skills, instead of as a distinct set of language-specific abilities, it is possible to relate the growth in metalinguistic ability to the other language skills, for example, oral fluency, literacy, and bilingualism. Bialystok and Ryan (1985), consequently, primarily aim to “conceptualize some linguistic accomplishment by placing the metalinguistic tasks within a cognitive framework.”

More to the point, White, 1981 (cit. in Shaw and McDonough, 1993: 113) makes some suggestions about the stages and procedures of a reading lesson, which may help teachers (a) to put the skill into a classroom context, and (b) to see some of its possible relationships with other language skills:

Stage 1. Arouse the students’ interest and motivation by linking the topic of the text to their own experience or existing knowledge. Give some pre-reading/focusing questions to help them to do this.

Stage 2. Give them points to search for in the reading text, or ask the students to suggest the points.

Stage 3. Develop into writing by using the information gained for another purpose.

Likewise, Dansereau, 1985 (cit. in O’Malley and Chamot, 1990: 152), takes aim at Computer-Assisted Cooperative Learning (CACL) Program to train pairs of students to use a sequence of reading comprehension strategies, which are presented and practiced by computer, as this author points out. He draws attention to the role of his learner strategy system (identified by its acronym MURDER), which trains primary strategies for comprehension/retention and for retrieval/utilization, and support strategies for planning, monitoring, and concentration management.

Therefore, “the information just seen may be valuable for test developers in evaluating test items, as well as for classroom teachers concerned with preparing second language learners to use the language more successfully, as well as additional research into the teaching of reading and test taking strategies in need of investigation”, as Anderson et al. (1991) indicate.

Anyway, another important aspect in Anderson et al. (1991)’s work and that we would like to emphasize is that related to “the need of research into the teaching of reading and test-taking strategies.” In this sense, Doff (1988: 257) draws attention to the importance of giving regular tests in the classroom setting:

− They tell the teacher what the students can and cannot do, and therefore, how successful the teaching has been; and they show what areas need to be taught in the future.

− They tell the students how well they are progressing, and where they need to focus their attention as learners. Regular tests also encourage students to take their learning seriously, and give them a series of definite goals to aim towards.

Bibliographical references

• Anderson, N. J., Bachman, L., Perkins, K., & Cohen, A. (1991). An exploratory study into the construct validity of a reading comprehension test: Triangulation of data sources. Language Testing, 8(1), 41-66. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249870070_An_exploratory_study_into_the_construct_validity_of_a_reading_comprehension_test_Triangulation_of_data_sources/comments. [Accessed August 08, 2019].
• Anderson, R. C., & Pearson, P. D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. Handbook of Reading Research, 1, 255-291.
• Bachman, L. F., & Cohen, A. D. (Eds.). (1998). Interfaces between second language acquisition and language testing research. Cambridge University Press.
• Bialystok, E., & Ryan, E. B. (1985). Toward a Definition of Metalinguistic Skill. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 31(3), 229-51.
• Doff, A. (1988). Teach English (a training course for teachers). Cambridge University Press.
• Hythecker, V. I., Rocklin, T. R., Dansereau, D. F., Lambiotte, J. G., Larson, C. O., & O'Donnell, A. M. (1985). A computer-based learning strategy training module: Development and evaluation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 1(3), 275-283.
• O’Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
• Ryan, E. B. (1985). Toward a Definition of Metalinguistic Skill. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 31(3), 229-251.
• Shaw, C., & McDonough, J. (1993). Materials and Methods in ELT. A Teacher’s Guide. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher.
• Sheeba. (2018). Teaching Reading: Goals and Techniques. Emerging Trends in Education Publisher: New Delhi Publisher. Retrieved from: (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328449849_Teaching_Reading_Goals_and_Techniques). [Accessed August 08, 2019].

RESEARCH IN READING COMPREHENSION: GATHERING INFORMATION ON TEST-TAKING PROCESSES AS PART OF CONSTRUCT VALIDATION

Anderson et al. (1991) undertake highly focused research on Language Testing, which “examines the use of reading comprehension tests and reading purposes.” Like this manner, their paper, based on good, effective, and relevant hypotheses in relation to its research objectives, “serves as a methodological exploration in the use of information from think-aloud protocols and more commonly used types of information on test content and test performance in the investigation of construct validity.” In doing so, in keeping with Bachman and Cohen (1998), we believe that this paper does bring out to the open the production of tests, useful to both Language Testing (LT) and Second Language Acquisition (SLA) professionals, which would provide information interpretable of the language abilities acquired or measured as evidence of communicative competence in context. Hence, it may involve a major breakthrough in LT and SLA research regarding “the second language classroom teacher underpinned by how readers should be taught to take standardized tests so that their scores will more appropriately reflect their students’ language abilities,” as Anderson et al. (1991) point out. In that regard, Sheeba (2018) indicates that “the communicative approach to language teaching has given instructors a different understanding of the role of reading in the language classroom and of the type of texts that can be used in instruction.” This way, we believe that these procedures may contribute towards a variety of methods and materials, which at present play an active part in reading classroom. In this respect, Anderson and Pearson (1984) specify that our task is to characterize basic processes of reading comprehension. They do not present a model of the entire reading process, beginning with the focusing of the eye on the printed page and ending with the encoding of information into long-term semantic memory or its subsequent retrieval for purposes of demonstrating comprehension to someone in the outer world. Instead, they focus on one aspect of comprehension of particular importance to reading comprehension: the issue of how the reader's schemata, or knowledge already stored in memory, function in the process of interpreting new information and allowing it to enter and become a part of the knowledge store. They, then, highlight that whether we are aware of it or not, it is this interaction of new information with old knowledge that we mean when we use the term comprehension. They, then, notice that to say that one has comprehended a text is to say that her/she has found a mental "home" for the information in the text, or else that he or she has modified an existing mental home in order to accommodate that new information. In other words, the interaction between old and new information. Therefore, Anderson and Pearson (1984), emphasize, overall, the importance of the “basic principle of Gestalt Psychology, called the Law of Pragnanz, which consists of “that mental organization, which will always be as good as prevailing conditions allow.” Particularly, they clearly draw attention to, “how a schema may be modified to accommodate new information” as regards basic processes of reading comprehension.

Progressing in the exposed sense, Bialystok and Ryan (1985) examine a range of metalinguistic tasks in terms of cognitive and linguistic prerequisites to their solutions. They argue that conceptualizing metalinguistic ability as reliance on (1) growth in analysis of knowledge of language and (2) increased control over cognitive operations makes it possible to relate metalinguistic ability to other language skills. To clarify what is intended by the term metalinguistic ability, they look at a variety of tasks, considered to be metalinguistic, in terms of the cognitive and linguistic prerequisites to their solution. They indentify, subsequently, two cognitive skills, which develop throughout childhood as underlying requirements to the solution of these metalinguistic problems. These skills refer to the growth in analysis of knowledge of language, and the increased control over cognitive operations. Hence, Bialystok and Ryan (1985) underline that by conceptualizing metalinguistic ability as reliance on these two cognitive skills, instead of as a distinct set of language-specific abilities, it is possible to relate the growth in metalinguistic ability to the other language skills, for example, oral fluency, literacy, and bilingualism. Bialystok and Ryan (1985), consequently, primarily aim to “conceptualize some linguistic accomplishment by placing the metalinguistic tasks within a cognitive framework.”

More to the point, White, 1981 (cit. in Shaw and McDonough, 1993: 113) makes some suggestions about the stages and procedures of a reading lesson, which may help teachers (a) to put the skill into a classroom context, and (b) to see some of its possible relationships with other language skills:

Stage 1. Arouse the students’ interest and motivation by linking the topic of the text to their own experience or existing knowledge. Give some pre-reading/focusing questions to help them to do this.

Stage 2. Give them points to search for in the reading text, or ask the students to suggest the points.

Stage 3. Develop into writing by using the information gained for another purpose.

Likewise, Dansereau, 1985 (cit. in O’Malley and Chamot, 1990: 152), takes aim at Computer-Assisted Cooperative Learning (CACL) Program to train pairs of students to use a sequence of reading comprehension strategies, which are presented and practiced by computer, as this author points out. He draws attention to the role of his learner strategy system (identified by its acronym MURDER), which trains primary strategies for comprehension/retention and for retrieval/utilization, and support strategies for planning, monitoring, and concentration management.

Therefore, “the information just seen may be valuable for test developers in evaluating test items, as well as for classroom teachers concerned with preparing second language learners to use the language more successfully, as well as additional research into the teaching of reading and test taking strategies in need of investigation”, as Anderson et al. (1991) indicate.

Anyway, another important aspect in Anderson et al. (1991)’s work and that we would like to emphasize is that related to “the need of research into the teaching of reading and test-taking strategies.” In this sense, Doff (1988: 257) draws attention to the importance of giving regular tests in the classroom setting:

− They tell the teacher what the students can and cannot do, and therefore, how successful the teaching has been; and they show what areas need to be taught in the future.

− They tell the students how well they are progressing, and where they need to focus their attention as learners. Regular tests also encourage students to take their learning seriously, and give them a series of definite goals to aim towards.

Bibliographical references

• Anderson, N. J., Bachman, L., Perkins, K., & Cohen, A. (1991). An exploratory study into the construct validity of a reading comprehension test: Triangulation of data sources. Language Testing, 8(1), 41-66. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249870070_An_exploratory_study_into_the_construct_validity_of_a_reading_comprehension_test_Triangulation_of_data_sources/comments. [Accessed August 08, 2019].
• Anderson, R. C., & Pearson, P. D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. Handbook of Reading Research, 1, 255-291.
• Bachman, L. F., & Cohen, A. D. (Eds.). (1998). Interfaces between second language acquisition and language testing research. Cambridge University Press.
• Bialystok, E., & Ryan, E. B. (1985). Toward a Definition of Metalinguistic Skill. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 31(3), 229-51.
• Doff, A. (1988). Teach English (a training course for teachers). Cambridge University Press.
• Hythecker, V. I., Rocklin, T. R., Dansereau, D. F., Lambiotte, J. G., Larson, C. O., & O'Donnell, A. M. (1985). A computer-based learning strategy training module: Development and evaluation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 1(3), 275-283.
• O’Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
• Ryan, E. B. (1985). Toward a Definition of Metalinguistic Skill. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 31(3), 229-251.
• Shaw, C., & McDonough, J. (1993). Materials and Methods in ELT. A Teacher’s Guide. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher.
• Sheeba. (2018). Teaching Reading: Goals and Techniques. Emerging Trends in Education Publisher: New Delhi Publisher. Retrieved from: (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328449849_Teaching_Reading_Goals_and_Techniques). [Accessed August 08, 2019].

In terms of teaching approaches, its somehow discipline- specific. But, a careful balance between teacher-led and learner-centred approaches work well. However, more practical and the use of everyday life scenarios in the presentation of the teaching content works very well for students.